Hide and Seek

The Thirteenth Tribe

Published on January 13, 2005 By geser nart In History

THE MONGOLS
Mongol historiy is a topic widely touched upon, and a good source will be "Mongolia - A Country Study" linked at http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/mntoc.html authored by Robert L. Worden and Andrea Matles Savada, eds. Washington, DC: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, 1989. An excerpt could be seen at http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Mongolia.html. Most of the studies concentrated on Mongolians at the time of Chinggis Khan (Jenghiz Khan or Genghis Khan) and his trans-continental empire. What I am interested in is historical authentication, and this kind of research is probably best achieved by Paul Ratchnevsky whose German version of the book, "Genghis Khan: His Life And Legacy" (first published in 1983 by Franz Steiner Verlag GMBH), was transalated into English in 1991 by Blackwell Publishers Ltd. The author thoroughly compared all available records, from "The Secret History of the Mongols" (military sagas authored around 1228 by Shigi-Khutukhu the adopted son of the Khan), Chinese version "Shenwu Qinzheng Lu (The Campaigns of Genghis Khan)" (derived from Altan Debter-Golden Book, the same source as used by Rashid), "Yuanshi (The History of the Yuan Dynasty)" (edited by Khubilai), Juvaini's "History of the World Conqueror", and two books by Rashid ad-Din the Jewish doctor of the Mongol Il-khans of Persia: "Jami'al-tawrikh (Collected Chronicles)" and "History of the Tribes".

Some western scholars, in their descriptions of Mongol military brutalities, would point out that it was Genghis Khan’s Mongols who had helped to lay the foundation of today’s Russia and China. They would further express their admirations for Genghis Khan’s ambitions for uniting Mongols into a strong nation and his exceptional military talents in defeating any rival in front of him. While it might be true that Mongols had played a role in forming today’s Russia, it’s definitely not the case with China, a country experiencing integration and disunity in a predictable fashion for past thousand years.

As to Genghis Khan’s personal traits, they are not very different from other heroes or tyrants in human history. For Genghis Khan, I will list three as most important of all: revenge, lust, and predacity. Genghis Khan lost his father at an early age, as a result of his father being poisoned by the Tatar tribe. This is in addition to Tatars' betraying his ancestors to the Jurchens. He would be deprived of tribal privileges by his own people after the death of his father. Hence, Genghis Khan’s life-time objective became undisputably clear: to avenge himself on his enemies. Genghis Khan would first retake leadership of his own tribe, and then defeat the Tatars, the top enemy. The final revenge would be that on the Jurchens who were driven out of their first capital of Peking, and second capital of Kaifeng, and finally Jurchens were denied a request to surrender. (In contrast, the later Manchurians would treat the Mongols much better.) As to the second trait, Genghis Khan launched several campaigns against the Tanguts’ Xixia (Western Xia) and Jurchens’ Jin (Gold), but on the initial wars against both parties, respectively, he withdrew his forces after the emperor or king of Xixia and Jin negotiated peace by surrendering their young daughters to Genghis Khan as brides. It was rumored that Genghis Khan died of poisoning in the hands of his Tangut wife when he campaigned against Xixia the 2nd time. Genghis Khan's life philosophy is best quoted in all books available, namely, he once asked his sons, "What will be the happiest thing ever for a man in his lifetime?" He told his sons that it would be to kill the male population of his enemies, grab the daughters and wives of his enemies and take them as his wives & concubines.

Indeed, Mongols mercilessly slaughtered the male population of clans and tribes they conquered. The myth that Mongols spared those who surrendered was simply not true. Mongols either killed all males or those males who had a height above the wheel of a cart. E.g., after taking over Samarkand where the defenders surrendered, Genghis Khan would kill all 40,000 prisoners at night, with about 30,000 skilled workers and artizans spared and another 30,000 labor taken as slaves. The simple trick is like this: Mongols tricked the conquered city by separating the males from females, ordered the males dwell outside of the city wall, and slaughtered them at night. Similar genocide could be found among Spanish Conquistadors and British colonialists in North America and Australia. (http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/genes/population/proof.shtml carried an article proving that Spanish Conquistadors slaughtered indigenous Amerindian men and enslaved the women as exhibited by Iberian Y chromosomes and Amerindian mtDNA in today's Colombia.) For nomads like Genghis Khan, the traits (genetic or not) remain quite simple: Since nomads do not have grain reserves for natural disasters as agricultural settlers do, the first thing nomads would undertake would be to raid into the sedentary communities. Coupled with his two former traits, Genghis Khan’s accomplishments are certainly understandable.

Then who are those Mongols? They are not necessarily the same as today's Mongolians. Today, both the Mongolians and the Kazaks claim that they were the true descedants of Genghis Khan, and some people in southern China also claimed the same heritage. When Mr Liang Suming (Last Confucian Of China) published an article "An Exploration Into Yuan Dynasty" in 1918 and hence was appointed lecturer of philosophy at Peking University, people would not know that Liang, a youth of 25 from Guiling, today’s Guangxi Province in Southern China, would be a Mongol in heritage. The Mongols held on to their stronghold in today's Guangxi-Yunnan areas much longer after they lost China proper. Recent DNA tests conducted against the remains of the Khitan tombs, however, pointed to the possibility that those Mongols in today's Yunan-Guangxi areas were more Khitan than Mongol. Those people in southern China did historically claim that they were the descendants of Khitans who were dispatched to southern China by the Mongols in the 14th century. (The DNA tests, interestingly, also linked the Dawo'er or Dagur people in today's Manchuria as the closest kin of the ancient Khitans.)

Then, who are those people called Mongols came from at the time of Genghis Khan? What is their lineage and who would be their direct descendants today? And, what did Paul Ratchnevsky say in his book "Genghis Khan: His Life And Legacy" about the origins of various steppe tribes, the ambiguous birth year of Ghengis Khan, and most importantly, missing 10 year history of the Khan?

Mengwu Shiwei

It will be a tough call to tell the difference between Turkic, Mongol and Tungusic tribes. We had spent considerable time exploring into the Huns and the Turks. It will help in clarifying the origin of the Mongols. Before the Mongols, there existed the Hsiongnu (Huns), Hsien-pi (Xianbei), Tavghach (Toba), Juan-juan (Ruruans), Tu-chueh (Turks), Uygurs or Uighurs (see Turk section), Kirghiz, and Khitans. Tribal empires rose and fell, the conquered and the conquerors mixed up, and ethnic and linguistic dividing lines blurred. Notable would be the fact that the so-called Indo-European nomads, Scythians ('Sai Ren' People) and Yuezhi (Yüeh-chih), had migrated to Oxus and the Iranian world a long time ago. Huns and Turks followed the path of the formers.

After the Hunnic decline in late first century AD, the Xianbei moved back to the old territories, between Yinshan Mountains and Yanshan Mountains. The Xianbei mixed up with the Huns. There appeared a Xianbei chieftan called Tanshikui (reign AD 156-181) who established a Xianbei alliance by absorbing dozens of thousands of Huns. The Tanshikui alliance disintegrated after the death of Tanshikui. Another chieftan called Kebi'neng emerged. Ts'ao Ts'ao broke this new Xianbei alliance by having Shi Xiong send an assasin to kill Kebi'neng. Warlord Yuan Shao campaigned against the Wuhuans and controlled three prefectures of Wuhuan nomads. After Ts'ao Ts'ao defeated Yuan Shao, Yuan's two sons, Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi fled to seek refuge with the Wuhuans. Ts'ao Ts'ao campaigned against the Wuhuan, killed a chieftan called Tadu (with same last character as Hunnic Chanyu Modu or Modok), and took over the control of southern Manchuria. Xianbei then took the place of Wuhuan, and three major groups were seen: Greater Xianbei under Budugeng, Lesser Xianbei under Kebineng, and Manchurian Xianbei. The Xianbei nomad, with major tribes of Murong, Yuwen, Duan, would establish many short-lived successive states along the Chinese frontier.

The Huns set up their Hunnic Han or Zhao Dynasties by the end of Western Jinn Dynasty. Also Hunnic will be a Xia Dynasty, established by Helian Bobo, who was said to be of a mingle nature, called 'Tie Fu'. The Tie Fu Huns were born of Xianbei mother and Hunnic father. Among these states, the Toba or Tuoba (T'o-pa in Wade-Giles), a subgroup of the Xianbei, took over northern China and established Toba Wei Dynasty. In the Altai, leftover Huns were absorbed by Ruruans whose founder, who once served under Toba, fled to the Altai and built up a strong power by absorbing the Huns and Gao-che people. Then, the Ruruans were defeated and exterminated by Turks. Tobas would deal with the onslaughts by the Ruruans first and then the Turks. Tobas themselves got sinicized in northern China.

In AD 443, the barbarians who took over Toba's old territories, upper Heilongjiang River and northern Xing'an Ridge (Greater Khingan Mountains), came to see Toba Wei Emperor (Toba Tao) and told him that they found Toba ancestor's stone house, called 'Ga Xian Dong'. Toba Tao sent a minister called Li Chang to the stone house which was carved out of a natural cavern. In 1980s, this cavern was discovered as well as the inscriptions left by Li Chang. Ultimately, Toba Wei Dynasty would be usurped by two generals of Xianbei heritage.

The peoples who dwelled in old Xianbei-Wuhuan-Toba territories would be the later Shiwei Tribes (ancestors of Mengwu Shiwei or Genghis Mongols), the Khitans, the Xi nomads, and the Malgal people etc. They would be the ancestors of later Jurchens or Mongols. The Khitans first appeared on the stage.

The Khitans, occupying the old territories of the Xianbei, were said to be related to the Tungus, according to "New History of Five Dynasties". Specifically, "New History Of Tang Dynasty" mentioned that the Khitans were the descendants of the Kebi'neng Xianbei. (Alternatively, "Old History Of Five Dynasties" said that the Khitans were alternative race of the Huns which was a generic name for all nomads.) New History Of Tang Dynasty said that by the time of Toba's Northern Wei Dynasty (AD 386-534), the ancestors of Khitans adopted the name 'Khitan' or "Qidan' for themselves. Khitans lived around the Liao River in today's Manchuria. To the east of the Khitans will be Koguryo, to the west the Xi nomads (said to be alternative race of the Huns), to the north Huji (Malgal) and Shiwei Tribes, and to the south Yingzhou Prefecture of Toba Wei Dynasty. "New History Of Tang Dynasty" said Khitans possessed eight tribes and they were subject to the Turks. Prior to Sui Dynasty (AD 581-618), Turks had replaced their Ruruan masters as the strongest power in the northern steppe. Around 620s, Khitan chieftan came to see Tang's first Emperor, Tang Gaozu (Li Yuan), together with Malgal chieftan. At the times of Tang Empress Wuhou, Khitans began to rebell against Tang. In AD 712, Khitans submitted to Tang and was conferred the title of King of Songmuo Prefecture. Heads of eight Khitan tribes were conferred posts as general, too. A Tang royal family princess, Princess Yongle, was sent to Khitan khan as wife. More Tang princesses were marrived over to Khitans. By mid-750s, the Khitans defeated the Tang army led by An Lushan. Khitans later submitted to Uygurs. It would be in AD 842 that Khitans came to submit to Tang again after the Uygur kingdom was destroyed by the Kirghiz. Governor-general of Youzhou, Zhang Zhongwu, would replace Khitan's Uygur seal with Tang seal. In AD 860s, Khitans came to pay pilgrimages to Tang. After the fall of Tang Dynasty (AD 619-907), three dynasties among the Five Dynasties (AD 907-960), Posterior Tang 923-936, Posterior Jin 936-946, Posterior Han 947-950, were ruled by the Sha'to Turks. The remaining Orkhon Turks were not heard from after China's Five Dynasties time period. With the demise of Tang Dynasty (AD 618-907), Khitans began to conquer Xi nomads, Tanguts, Dadan, and Shiwei statelets. Uygurs (Uighurs) fled to the Tibetans and Karlaks to take refuge in Ganzhou and Xinjiang after being replaced by the Kirghiz.

Against this setting, we would encounter the ancestors of the Mongols. Shiwei tribes would be where we are to trace the Mongols for their origin. According to Chinese history, there were over twenty Shi-wei (Shiwei) Tribes, including East Shiwei, West Shiwei, Mengwu Shiwei and Luozu Shiwei, among others. Mengwu Shiwei would be where the ancestors of future Mongols under Genghis Khan's grandfather came from. Mengwu Shiwei, according to the history account, dwelled in the upper segment of today's Heilongjiang River and belonged to the 'forest people' against the 'pastoral people'.

The Shiwei people were said to be alternative race of the Khitans, according to Xin Tang Shi (New History Of Tang Dynasty). They could be related to the ancient 'Dingling' people. (Dingling, a gegeric name, was said to be derived from the ancient Chidi people, and early Gaoche people were said to have relation to Dingling as well.) The Shiwei people shared the same language as Malgal people (ancestors of Jurchens and Manchus). They dwelled in upper Heilongjiang River. The location was to the east of the Turks, to the west of Malgal, and to the north of the Khitans. There were over 20 Shiwei tribes on record, including Mengwu Shiwei, ancestors of Genghis Khan Mongols. Among Shiwei tribes would be an interesting name called 'Huangdou Shiwei', i.e., yellow head Shiwei. "Xin Wu Dai Shi" (New History of Five Dynasties), citing the account of a Chinese (Hu Qiao) taken prisoner of war by Khitans, mentioned that there was a statelet called Yujuelu with 'Maodou' (hairy head) people to the northwest of Shiwei and to the north of the Kirghiz people. Also to the northeast of Shiwei would be another group of 'Maoshou' or hairy head people. Hu Qiao also mentioned a statelet called 'Gou-guo' or 'doggy statelet' where the babies born would be human beings if a girl, but dogs if a boy. (I guess that arrogant ancient Chinese treated hairy Euroasian men as doggy equivalent. Whereas, I interpreted prehistoric Sino-Tibetan-speaking 'Rong' barbarians as wearing wooly clothes against 'mao' character for hairy skin.)

Shiwei first came to Tang Dynasty during the 5th year of Tang Emperor Taizong's reign, AD 631. Shiwei came to Tang court over a dozen times. By the 4th year of Zhenyuan Era, AD 788(?), Xi nomads joined Shiwei in attacking Zhengwu governor office. Shiwei were later taken over by the Khitan Empire. When Jurchens rose up against the Khitans and moved into northern China, the Shiwei and Mongolia territories were nominally controlled by the Jurchens via three major Jurchen vassals: the Naimans, the Keraits and the Tatars.

Later historical records quoted the Jurchen Jin Dynasty's history (compiled by Mongol Yuan Dynasty's prime minister) as saying that the 'Mengwu' people had a rebellion led by Kabul-khan. It was said that after the migration of the Jurchens to north China, the Borjigin people (who derived from Mengwu Shiwei) had emerged in central Mongolia as the leading clan of a loose federation. Kabul Khan raided into Jurchen Jin in AD 1135 by taking advantage of Jurchen's southern campaign against Song Chinese. Jurchen emperor, hearing of Mongol disturbance, called on Kabul Khan to the Jurchen capital. Kabul Khan, being drunken, did not show respect for the Jurchen emperor. When Jurchens dispatched emissaries to Kabul Khan twice for recalling him to the Jurchen capital, Kabul Khan killed the Jurchen emissaries. Then, Jurchens dispatched General Hu Shahu on a campaign against Kabul Khan. Jurchens were defeated by Kabul Khan. When Jin Emperor Xizong died, his grandson colluded with Jurchen Jin General Wuzu in killing an uncle called Dalai, and Dalai's descendants fled to Kabul-khan's Mengwu people for assitance in avenging on the new Jurchen emperor. This caused the Jurchens to abort their southern campaigns against the Chinese of Southern Song Dynasty. Unable to fight the Mengku, the Jurchens negotiated a peace treaty with the Mengwu and moreover conferred Kabul-khan the title of king of the Mengwu people. After the death of Kabul-khan, the 'Mengwu' people were commented to have disintegrated. Kabul-khan decreed that his brother, Ambaki, be the leader. The Mongols then had wars with the Tatar tribe. The Tatar tribe tricked Ambaki into an arrest via a proposition for an inter-marriage, and then sent both Ambaki and Kabul-khan's elder son to the Jurchens for execution. Kabul-khan's 4th son, Kaidu, would avenge on the Jurchens. Kaidu passed on the reign to the 3rd son of his brother, i.e., Yesugei. (Yisugei, Genghis Khan's father and Emperor Shenyuan posthumously, would be fifth generation of Kabul Khan, according to History of Yuan Dynasty.) Yesugei would avenge on the Tatar tribe and kill a chieftan by the name of Timuchin, a same name assigned to his son. Yesugei, who was chief of the Kiyat subclan of the Borjigin, was later poisoned by Tatars in AD 1175, when Genghis Khan (Timuchin or Temujin) was only twelve years old. Genghis Khan is like either 3 or 4 generations apart from Kabul-khan. The Kiyat people rejected Timuchin as their leader and chose one of Timuchin's kin, instead. Temujin and his immediate family were deserted even by Yisugei's brothers who went to Tayichi'ut clan. By the early 13th century, Genghis Khan would unite all Turko-Mongol tribes, including Kiyats, Tatars, Merkits, Keraits and Naimans.

Mongol Legends
Legends claimed that Mengwu Shiwei clan was defeated by the neighboring clans and that only a few people survived by fleeing into the Erkene-kun Mountains. An able man by the name of Qi-yan took charge of the remnants, and his name 'Qi-yan' would mutate into the later tribal name of 'Kiyat'. (History of Yuan Dynasty stated that Genghis Khan's clan name was 'Qiwowen-shi'.) Qi-yan was said to have found an iron mine inside the Erkene-kun Mountains, and after melting the irons of a cavern, they found a road leading them out of the mountains. Over a dozen generations later would appear a person by the name of Duo-ben-ba-yan or Tuo-ben-muo-er-gen who married Alan-ko. After having two children, Duo-ben-ba-yan passed away; however, Alan-ko was said to have immaculate conceptions, bearing three more children, including Bodunchar who possessed grey eyes against the chestnut eye color of the brothers. Bodunchar, together with his four elder brothers, raided the Zha-e-chi-wu tribe and took over a woman called Bo-rui-ha-dun. One of Bodunchar's granson married Monolun and bore nine sons. Monolun, according to History of Yuan Dynasty, had bad temper and at one time killed some children of neighboring Jalair clan by running a cart over the kids. The Jalair clan raided them in retaliation, and only one son of Monolun, i.e., Kaidu, survived. Later, Kaidu defeated the Jalair clan to be a leader of the early Mongol people. Also of the Bodunchar descendancy would be fifth generation grandson, Kabul Khan.

Genghis Mongols Called Themselves 'Tatars'
However, contemporaries pointed out that Genghis Mongols called themselves 'Tatars'. It would be Khubilai Khan who would officially endorse the name 'Mengwu' or English 'Mongol'. The Genghis Khan Mongols identified themselves with the branch of the forest people called the Tayichi'uts, the Jukins, the Oirats and the Onggirats. The ancestors of Genghis Khan Mongols belonged to the Borjigid clan which was a branch of the Kiyats. The Onggirats connection lies in the fact that Yisugei had abducted a woman called Ho'elun as his wife, and future Yuan Dynasty internal ruling decreed that emperors must marry Onggirat women as empresses. (Mongol possibly possessed the same kinsmenship as the Jurchens. Some historian said the Khitans had once used the word 'Onggirat' for themselves and the Jurchens [Jurchids] had used 'Qonggirat' for the tribal name as well.) In the sections on Tayichi'uts and Mengwu, we will explain a bit more about their inter-relationships.

Turko-Mongol Tribes & Clans
Most European history books pointed out that the Ruruans [Rouran or Ru-ru] were 'Mongolian', and they even claimed that the Genghis Khan Mongols were descendants of the Ruruans. The Hunnic relationship with the Ruruans (said to be the successors of the Huns) has been explored in the Hun section. Toba Xianbei treated the founder of the Ruruan people as belonging to Donghu, i.e., Tungusic people in the east which included Xianbei, Wuhan and Tuoba. The Ruruan founder later fled to the Altai Mountains and conquered the remaining Hunnic successors there, hence mixing up with the Huns and Gao-che people in the west. My research into various records, however, shows that the Ruruans were more Hunnic than Turkic or Mongol. The Hunnic successors would include the Ruruans, the Turks, and the Tiele Tribes (ancestors of the Uygurs) etc.

As described at http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mn0018), "during those centuries, the vast region of deserts, mountains, and grazing land was inhabited by people resembling each other in racial, cultural, and linguistic characteristics; ethnologically they were essentially Mongol." ... Generally, the Mongols and the closely related Tatars inhabited the northern and the eastern areas; the Türk (who already had begun to spread over western Asia and southeastern Europe) were in the west and the southwest; the Tangut, who were more closely related to the Tibetans than were the other nomads and who were not a Turkic people, were in eastern Xinjiang, Gansu, and western Inner Mongolia ... The Liao state was homogeneous, and the Kitan had begun to lose their nomadic characteristics. ... To the west and the northwest of Liao were many other Mongol tribes, linked together in various tenuous alliances and groupings, but with little national cohesiveness. In Gansu and eastern Xinjiang, the Tangut--who had taken advantage of the Tang decline--had formed a state, Western Xia or Xixia (1038-1227), nominally under Chinese suzerainty. Xinjiang was dominated by the Uygurs, who were loosely allied with the Chinese."

The demarcation line between Turkic and Mongol tribes is so much blurred that any definitive assertion could be a fallacy at best. http://berclo.net/page97/97en-steppe-empires.html mentioned that among the tribes, "some are Turkic (Kyrgyz, Kerait, Uygur), some Mongol (Oirat, Tatar) and some Turko-Mongol (Naiman, Merkit)." This differentiation may not be scientific, in my opinion.

In the following, I will discuss the relationships between 'Mengwu' (Mongol) and clans like Tayichi'uts, how the Naimans & Keraits triggered the founding of the Khitan Liao, and how Genghis Mongols took over of the northern land by defeating Tatars and other clans. We will briefly touch on the three waves of Mongol invasions. Mongol activities in China and later retreat to their homeland will be explored as well. I am not going to repeat the Mongolian myth that the Mongolians came from 'Blue-Grey Wolf' and 'Radiant Doe', 10 generations before the mythical Alan-ko'a born Bodunchar, nor spending too much time on the lineage of Kaidu-khan, Kabul Khan, Ambaki, Yisugei and Timuchin (i.e., Genghis Khan).

Naimans
When the Kirghiz defeated the Huihe (Uygurs) in AD 840 and took over northern Mongolia, there was a group of people called the Naimans who remained in their homalands in the Altai Mountains and attached themselves to the Kirghiz. The Naimans is said to be a Mongol name for a group of the Turkic tribe called 'Sakiz Oghuz' or the Eight Oghuz, a name which existed in 8th century. (The authentic Oghuz Turks would find their way to Anatolia, separately.)

Gradually, the Naimans grew in strength and drove the Kirghiz to the River Yenesei and rooted the Keraits from their homeland on the Irtysch in the Altai and drove them towards Manchuria, hence indirectly causing the Khitans to move to northern China where they established the Liao Dynasty in AD 907-1125.

The Naiman federation adopted the script and the religion (buddhism) of their southern neighbor, the Uygurs, and maintained relations with the Kara-Khitai or Western Liao empire founded by Yeliu-taishi who fled to Turfan after Liao was defeated in Manchuria by the Jurchens. Though the Naimans are said to be of Turkic origin, their customs and habits had become Mongolized in a matter of hundreds of years. The Naimans later adopted Nestorian Christinanity, and were observed to be so by William of Rubruck in AD 1253 (see Paul Ratchnevsky). It will be through the Naimans that Genghis Khan adopted the Uigur script and became civilized. When Genghis Khan defeated the Naimans, Kuchlug, son of the Naiman Tayang-khan, sought refuge in Kara-Khitai and converted to Buddhism from Nestorian.

The reason Timuchin (Genghis Khan) had defeated the Naimans is mainly that the Naimans split into two groups, i.e., Tayang-khan (conferred Taiwang or great king by the Jurchens) and Buiruk-khan, and they could not unite into a common front. The alliance of Timuchin and Toghrul (Keraits) first defeated Buiruk in AD 1199 (and killed him in AD 1207), and then defeated the Tayang-khan.

Tayang-khan's Naimans took over a small territory of Timuchin. Timuchin dispatched Hubilai and Chepe on a forerunner campaign against Tayang-khan. Tayang-khan, though allied with Merkits (under Tuotuo), Jadirats (under Jumuka), Kerait remnants (under A'lingtaishi), Wei-la, Ji-la, Tatar remnants, Katagin and Seljiuts, lost the war to Timuchin. Tayang-khan died with all his soldiers. Jumuka, who first deserted the Toghrul's Keraits, would desert Tayang-khan's Naimans before this fight started. Jumuka himself would be turned over by his own men and died in the hands of Timuchin's clan. Timuchin took over Taya-khan's wife and subjugated his allies. Katagin, Seljiuts, Duo-lu-ban and remnant Tatars surrendered. When Timuchin continued on to attack Merkits, Tutuo the Merkits' khan fled to Buiruk-khan's Naimans. The Merkits fled west but were defeated again in AD 1204 and the whole tribe was taken over by Timuchin. In AD 1206, Timuchin (Genghis Khan) held a grand assembly and received the title as Genghis Khan.

Keraits
East of the Naimans, from the Orkhon River in the west to the Onon and Kerulen rivers, was the new home of the Keraits. This is a group of people that had been disputed by Tao Zongyi (T'ao Tsung-i 1316- ?) to be Mongols, but Rashid ad-Din placed them in a subgroup with the Naimans, Uygurs, Kirghiz, Kipchaks and other Turkic peoples while acknowledging the resemblances between the Keraits and the Mongols. Still one more Chinese, Tu Ji, in his "History of the Mongols" (Mengwuer Shiji), assumed that the Keraits were Turkic and originated from Turkic Kangli and Ghuzz and their language was Turkic. It was also said that an important Kirghiz tribe bears the name of Kirai, which is equivalent to Kerait. As to their Mongol characteristics, Paul Ratchnevscky assumed that some Khitans were left behind and got assimiliated into the Keraits. Paul Ratchnevsky emphasized the amicableness between the Keraits and West Khitans as exemplified by the fact that Kerait's khan, Toghrul, had once sought refuge in Western Liao. Paul Ratchnevsky mentioned that the Keraits accepted Nestorian faith and that the grandfather and father of Toghrul had Latin names like Marghus (Markus) and Qurjaquz (Kyriakus).

Yisugei had helped Kerait chieftan, Toghrul, twice. Toghrul was resented by his tribesmen for killing his brothers. When Toghrul was defeated by his uncle and fled with few hundreds of horsemen, Yisugei would come to his aid and drive Toghrul's uncle to Tanguts' Western Xia territory. Later, Toghrul's brother rebelled as well, and Toghrul had to flee southwestward to the three statelets of 'Hexi', 'Huihu' and 'Huihui' (Uygur, Qiangic and Tibetan territories) for asylum. Thereafter, Toghrul sought asylum with the Kara Khitans. When Toghrul escaped back to Mongolia, Timuchin would give him a good reception and treat Toghrul as 'father'. Timuchin later defeated the Merkits and gave the captured people to Toghrul. Toghrul hence gained strength. Toghrul and Timuchin cooperated few times in fighting the Naimans thereafter.

The importance of Keraits would lie in the fact that Timuchin sought the protection under Toghrul and their alliance laid the foundation for the uprise of the Mengwu Mongols. Toghrul enjoyed a title called Wang Khan conferred by the Jurchens and hence an alliance with Toghrul served the purpose of elelvating Timuchin's position among the nomads. After exterminating the Tatars in AD 1202, Timuchin broke with Toghrul's Keraits, and Genghis Kan killed Toghrul in AD 1203 and took over Kerait throne.

Merkits & Women Abduction
The savage and warlike Merkits are not to be discounted here. It would be Timuchin's father, Yisugei, a Kiyat-Borjirid, who robbed Ho'elun from the Merkits in the first place. Years later, the Merkits would avenge themselves by attacking Ghengis Khan and abducting his wife, Borte (a girl from subtribe of the Onggirat). This abduction rendered ambiguous the legitimacy of Timuchin's first son (Jochi-Kasar) since Borte born the child while being rescued many months later. It would be the alliance of the Keraits and the Genghis clan, together with another rival clan of Jumaka (Timuchin's boyhood friend), that would be responsible for defeating the Merkits and rescuing Borte. The Merkits lived south of Lake Baikal on the lower Selenga. They lived by fishing and hunting. While Tao Zongyi and Rashid ad-Din regarded them as Mongols, others thought they were Turkic. In AD 1096, the Merkits rebelled against the Khitan Liao and were defeated. In the end, they were defeated by Genghis and assimilated into his clan.

Tatars (Tartars)
An immortal name as it sounds, this is a much abused name ever seen, considered to be a collective name for all tribes and nomads of Asia by the Europeans (see Latinized Tartarus, Greek Tartaros, and Germanic Tatar). When Dr Sun Tat-sen called on the Chinese to overthrow the Manchus, he proposed a slogan called "Expel the Tartars (Da Lu) and Restore Our China". Paul Ratchnevsky indiscriminately applied the later generic term 'Tartar' to the specific group of nomads called Tatar or Ta-ta-er. (I had used Tatar for the name of the enemy tribe of Genghis Khan's Mengwu people while reserving Tartar for designations by Ratchnevsky and modern Western scholars.) Then, how long a history did this name have? While Paul Ratchnevsky mentioned that the Tartar name was recorded as early as the Kul-tegin inscription of 731-732, there was a difference in the Chinese pictographic form for the denotations. Father of Li Chunxu (founder of Posterior Tang AD 923-936), before Tang Dynasty ended in AD 907, had once sought refuge with a group of nomads called the DaDan, a word that was used by Dr Sun in his slogan. This early group of the Tartars apparently lived north of China's Shanxi Province, the ancient Dai prefecture. It would be extremely difficult to associate the Tatars (Tartars) with those who existed 200 years before Genghis Khan.

According to Wu Dai Shi (History Of Five Dynasties), Da'dan were remnants of the Mohe Tribes (see Manchurian section), namely, ancestors of the Jurchens. They were originally located to the northeast of the Xi Nomads (alternative race of the Huns and later absorbed by the Khitans) and the Khitans. Being attacked by the Khitans, the Dadan people were scattered around, with some subject to the Khitans and some subject to Po'hai (a stateles to be absorbed by the Khitans later). One Dadan tribe relocated to the Yingshan Mountains and became known as Dadan by the end of Tang Dynasty. During Tang Emperor Yizhong's reign, AD 859-875, they joined hands with the Sha'to Turks in helping Tang to crack down on Pang Xun rebellion. When the Sha'to Turks, under Li Guochang and his son Li Keyong, were defeated by the Tuhun nomads of Helian Duo (see Tibetan section), the Li Sha'to Turks sought asylum with the Dadan people. Once Tang Dynasty called upon Li Keyong, the Dadans followed the Sha'to Turks in the campaigns against the Huang Chao Rebellion. After that, the Dadans dwelled betwen Yun and Dai prefectures of today's Shanxi Province. At the times of Posterior Tang (AD 923-936), the Dadans often answered calls in the campaigns against the Khitans. History records that the Dadans were still in contact with China at the times of Posterior Zhou (AD 951-960).

According to Rashid, the Tatar nation consisted of 70 thousand households or 350 thousand people in 12-13th centuries and they occupied the Kunlun and Buir lakes between the Kerulen River and the central Khingan Mountains. They are the richest people in Mongolia for silver mining, but internal quarrels kept them weak and they acted as the vassals of the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (founded in AD 1115) and constantly played the role of a hatchetman in subjugating various Mongol tribes. The Tatars had assisted the early Jurchens in defeating the Mongol (Meng-ku) rebellions, handed over Mongol leader Ambakai (disputed to have adopted tribal name of Tayichi'ut) and Kabul Khan's elder son to the Jurchens for execution in AD 1150s, and dealt the remaining Meng-ku tribes a decisive defeat near Lake Buir in AD 1160s.

The conflicting info in regards to Ambakai is that he was said to be a brother of Kabul-khan and had adopted a different tribal name of Tayichi'ut. Secret History said when Kabul-khan died, his wish was to have Ambakai to be the khan. But Rashid al-Din said that Kabul-khan's son assumed the leadership of the Mengwu people while Ambakai only led the Tayichi'ut clan. I would buy Secret History's version since I agree with Paul Ratchnevsky that Rashid had tried to paint a better picture for his Mongol host. The death of Ambakai is because Ambakai had antagonized the Tatars by killing their shaman who was called over to cure for his brother-in-law. Tatars cheated him into a trap by requesting for a marriage with Ambakai's daughter. Kabul-khan's elder son was caught by the Tatars when he went to them to request for the release of Ambakai. Both of them died as a result of Jurchens nailing them to wooden donkeys. However, the Tatars would pay back their debt later.

In AD 1195, the Tatars had a quarrel with the Jurchens over the booty from the war against the Onggirats. Jurchen Prime Minister, Wayan Xiang, campaigned in Mongolia. In AD 1196, Timuchin, taking advantage of Jurchen campaign against the Tatars, attacked and defeated the Tatars. Finally in AD 1202, Timuchin defeated them again, slaughtered all their men and enslaved all their women.

Oirats
The Oirats belonged to the forest tribes. It was said that Genghis Khan's forebearers belonged to the forest groups. The Oirats once joined Jumuka (AD 1201) in fighting Timuchin and Toghrul. Thereafter, the Oirats went to the Naimans together with Jamuka and the Keraits after Timuchin split with the Keraits and killed Toghrul. However, due to their close relationship, the Oirats and the Onggirats turned out to be Timuchin's best allies in later years. Both Russian historian Vladimirtsov and Rashid ad-Din commented that the dividing line between the forest people and the pastoral people is not clear, and they would switch positions should one party lose possession of the herd in an raid and become forest clans while the other party took possession of the herd and become pastoral. The relationship between the Oirats and the Onggirat is not clear; however, they belonged to the same group, the forest people, were branches of the Kiyats, and had close relationship with Timuchin's clan.

Onggirat & Genghis Khan's Wife
According to Rashid ad-Din, the Onggirat clan was a branch of the Kiyats while the Kiyat is a subclan of the Borjigin Mongols. Some historian said the Khitans had once used the word 'Onggirat' for themselves and the Jurchens (Jurchids) had used 'Qonggirat' for the tribal name. The Onggirats connection lie in the fact that Yisugei had robbed Ho'elun from the Merkits as said earlier. However, Ho'elun, was not a Merkit and she was a bribe whom Merkit's Chiledu had brought home from the Olkunu'ut, a minor tribe of the Onggirat. Nomadic ways of abduction posed extraordinary uncertainties in the fate of the women, and it was said that Ho'elun, seeing that Yisugei had invited two of his brothers along to attack her bridegroom, undressed her coat as a gift for Chiledu and asked Chiledu to run for his life, saying that he could find another woman to marry should he be able to live on. Years later, when Timuchin was 8-9 years old, Yisugei went to the Boskur subtribe of the Onggirat to find Borte as a fiance. Yisugei left his son (Timuchin) with Borte's father. It was on his way back that Yisugei was poisoned by the Tatars. Later, Timuchin, at about age 15, or AD 1182, went back to his stepfather for Borte. Borte's wedding gift, a sable cloak, would be presented to Toghrul (whom Timuchin took as his stepfather) as a gift. The alliance of the Onggirat tribe had played an important role in his uprise.

Borjigid & the color of the eyes
The Borjigid clan was a branch of the Kiyats, to which the Jurchens (Jurchids), Changsi'ut and the Kiyat-Sayar also belonged. The Borjigids had an legend that after the death of Dobun-mergen, the alleged ancestress Alan-ko bore Bodunchar after being visited by a strange 'golden glittering man'. Rashid ad-Din provided this rumor by alluding to a foreign origin of the visitor and described him as having red hair and blue-green eyes. Paul Ratchnevsky speculated that the mysterious visitor could be a Kirghiz since the Kirghiz people were said to be tall and possess red hair and green eyes, and he further speculated that in contrast with the red-haired Kirghiz, Chinese Tangshu (Tang History) had said those nomads with black hair were descendants of a Chinese general called Li Ling (Han Dynasty historian Sima Qian's friend) who surrendered to the Huns. (Note that Tang records stated that Kirghiz disliked BLACK hair and took it as BAD OMEN.) It is not strange that the nomads used the 'Light Conception Motif' to mystify their origins. The Kirghiz people, hundreds of years after they expelled the Uigurs from Mongolia, had become a people very much mystified.

Chinese records showed that the Mongolians had possessed 'chestnut colored' eyes. Today's song, "Dragon's Descendants", however, still sang about 'black-colored eyes'. Paul Ratchnevsky quoted the contemporary Chinese Zhao Hong as saying that Genghis Khan differed from other Tartars in that he was tall and had long beard, and quoted Marco Polo as saying that Khubilai did have black eyes but fair complexion 'ringed with red'. Rashid ad-Din, in 'Collected Chronicles', said that Genghis Khan was amazed to see that Khubilai had black hair while the rest of their family had red hair and said his grandson must have taken 'his old uncles' features. (I will deem Rashid's account with some suspicion. Yuan SHi (History of Yuan Dynasty only recorded that Bodunchar had grey eyes against the chestnut-colored eyes of his brothers and half-brothers. Nothing is mentioned of hair or skin. My personal opinion is that it would be impossible that only Genghis Khan himself looked different from the other 'Tartars' in the eyes of Zhao Hong while the lineage of the Borjigid should be running down along all tribal lines, including Tayichi'uts and Jurkins.)

Paul Ratchnevsky quoted some Islamic record saying Kirghiz people had light color in skin and eyes. Paul Ratchnevsky speculated about the connection of the Kirghiz to the Borjigid clan as the cause of Genghis Khan's non-Mongoloid features. The Borjigid was a branch of the Kiyats, to which the Jurchens (Jurchids) also belonged. According to "New History Of Five Dynasties", Kirghiz belonged to the ancient 'Jiankun' Statelet which was located to the western-most of the Huns. They should be to the west of Yiwu Statelet and to the north of Yanqi Statelet. Hunnic Chanyu Zhizhi destroyed Jiankun and ex-Han General Li Ling, who surrendered to the Huns, was assigned to the land of Jiankun as King of Youxianwang, namely, rightside virtuous king, with an army of 80,000. "New History Of Five Dynasties" said that Kirghiz possessed lighter skin, red hair, green eyes and taller height, and that those Kirghiz with black hair must be the descendants of Li Ling.

At one time, during Tang Emperor Suzong's reign of AD 758-760, the Huihu (Uygur) conquered the Jiankun Statelet of the Kirghiz. The Kirghis allied themselves with Tibetans, Arabs and Karlaks. Kirghiz, with the help of a defecting Huihu (Uygur) general and combining a cavalry forces of 100000, defeated Huihu (Uygur) and killed the Huihu khan around AD 840s. Fifteen Huihu (Uygur) tribes fled westward to the Karlaks, while some remnants fled southward to Tibetans for protection. Another thirteen families, under the new khan Wujie Tele, moved towards Tang China. Huihu (Uygur), under Khan Wujie, attacked Tiande and Zhenwu cities (near today's Datong, Shanxi areas), and Tang border governor-general Liu Mian countered back. Tang Court, at the request of Princess Taihe, agreed to let Huihu (Uygur) reside to the west of Zhenwu city. Further, Tang gave them 20,000 units of grain supply. This group of Huihu (Uygur) would be engaged with fights against Tang China, Tibetans, Xi Nomads of Manchuria, Sha'to Turks, and Kirghis for years, till they were totally destroyed. Today's Huihu (Uygur) should look towards those who fled to the Karlaks and Tibetans for their ancestors.

Kirghiz Khan, Ah Ri, earlier, had retrieved Tang Princess Taihe from the Huihu (Uygur) and sent her on the way to Tang China. But the new khan of Huihu (Uygur), Wujie, killed Kirghiz emissary and brought Princess Taihe back to their court. Kirghiz claimed that they shared the same last name as Tang emperors. They sent another emissary to Tang, and it took the emissary three years to reach Tang to see Emperor Wuzong. Later Kirghiz sent another emissary and made a proposal to attack Huihu (Uygur) together. It would be in AD 859 that Tang Emperor Xuandi decided to confer the Kirghiz the title of Khan Bravery-Intelligence. New History Of Five Dynasties said Kirghiz paid three more pilgrimages during AD 860-875, but they failed to exterminate Huihu (Uygur).

Jalair
Possibly of Turkic ancestry, this group of people were captured by the Timuchin's clan and became vassals. In early days, this group of people had raided the pasture of rich Mongol woman, Monolun (wife of the grandson of Bodunchar), and killed her and her eight sons. Only Kaidu was saved by his uncle Nachin and later Kaidu defeated the Jalair to be a leader of the early Mongol people. The Jalairs became very much attached to the Mongol people in the ensuing years. Later, they were became vassals and got assimilated. Mukali was said to be one of them.

Jukin
Okin-barkak's son, Sorkatu-jurki, is designated by Paul Ratchnevsky as the founder of the Jurkin. Okin-barak was the eldest son of Kabul-khan and he was Yisugei's uncle. The Jurkin wrestler, Buri-boko, was the grandson of Kabul-khan. Secret History talked about a banquet held by Timuchin and the Jurkin princes in celebration of several tribes defecting to him from Jamuka's camp. Two stewards of respective tribes, Buri-boko (Yisugei's cousin who went to the Jurkins for his hobby of wrestling long time ago) and Belgutei (Timuchin's elder brother) had a quarrel with each other over some clan members' actions. Fights broke out among the guests of the two sides.

The Jurkins are Timuchin's kinsmen, and they were called Kiyat-Jukins. When the Tatars rebelled against the Jurchens, the Jurchens came to Mongolia to fight the Tatars. In middle of AD 1196, the Tatars retreated in face of the Jurchen attack, and Timuchin called on the Jukins to join him in attacking the Tatars. Not getting a response from the Jukins for six days, he attacked the Tatars together with Toghrul's army and killed one Tatar prince. Hence, Timuchin was rewarded by Jurchens. When Naimans robbed Timuchin clansmen, Timuchin sent 60 men to the Jukin clan for borrowing soldiers. Jukins killed ten and stripped the clothes of the rest of Timuchin men. Because of this, Timuchin campaigned against them and killed the Jukin princes including Buri his own kinsman in AD 1196-1197.

Wang'gu
When Naimans tried to attack Timuchin, Tayang-khan had sent an emissary to a place near the Great Wall and Jurchen Jin for forging an alliance with a group of people called Wang'gu. This group of people were said to be different from the Mongols. There is speculation that they might be related to the earlier Shatuo Turks. Wang'gu chieftan, however, arrested the emissary and sent the prisoner to Timuchin. When Timuchin attacked the Naimans, the Wang'gu chieftan came along as an ally.

Jadarats and Genghis Khan's blood-brother Jamuka
When Timuchin was 11 years old, he played with Jamuka of the Jadarat clan on the Onon river. The two should be considered kinsmen, and that's why the word clan, not tribe, is used here. They were anda, i.e., blood brothers. When the Merkits abducted Borte, Timuchin sought help with Toghrul of the Keraits whom Jamuka had also allied with. Jamuka raised 20,000 people, plus another 20,000 people from Toghrul's Keraits. According to Secret History, Jamuka raised 10,000 men from Timuchin's clans and another 10,000 from among his own people. Jamuka entered the battlefield 3 days ahead of Toghrul and played a decisive role in defeating the Merkits in AD 1184. After that, Jamuka and Timuchin camped together for about one and a half years and they slept under one blanket. However, they split after Jamuka found out that Timuchin had a bigger ambition and would not follow his lead. At the time they split, Jamuka had already lost some of the people whom he had raised from Timuchin clans for the battle against the Merkits.

When Timuchin rallied his people to have him selected as a khan, Jamuka officially declared a war on Timuchin. Timuchin had 13 clans under him, totaling close to 30,000 men. Timuchin split his forces into 13 groups for countering Jamuka. Jamuka's coalition consisted of the Tayichi'ut, the Ikires (a branch of Onggirats), the Uru'ud, the Noyakins, the Barulas and the Ba'arin (those clans or subclans are beyond my ken). Jumuka had defeated Timuchin and possibly forced him into seeking asylum inside of the Jurchen territory, till Timuchin rose again in AD 1196. In between, for about ten years, Timuchin's whereabouts were ambiguous and historians (see Paul Ratchnevsky) thought it was a taboo. After AD 1196, Timuchin would gain more and more people, while Jumuka would incur loss till he was betrayed over to Timuchin by his own people in the final.

Hearing that Timuchin and Toghrul had defeated Buirak Naiman and Tayichi'uts consecutively, Tatars, Katagin, Seljiuts, Duo-lu-ban, and Onggirat formed an alliance. But Onggirat chieftan secretly sent a messenger to Timuchin about the forthcoming allied attack. Timuchin and Toghrul then attacked the alliance. Timuchin attacked and defeated the Tatars. When Onggirat was wrongly attacked, Onggirat fled to Jumuka's Jadirat clan. In AD 1201, Jumuka was elected as Gur-khan, i.e., khan of all tribes, by his coalition of Katagin, Seljiuts, Duo-lu-ban, Onggirat, Yi-qi-la-si, and Huo-lu-la-si. Timuchin defeated the alliance, and Onggirat sought vassalage with Timuchin. Jumuka escaped. Then, Timuchin campaigned against two Tatar tribes: An'chi-Tatar and Chahan-Tatar.

Merkit chieftan, Tuotuo, had staged a comeback, and Timuchin defeated Tuotuo. Naiman Khan Buirak allied with Katagin, Seljiuts, Duo-lu-ban and Tatar. Jumuka's Jadirats clan came to the aid of Nuirak; but, seeing the Naiman defeat, Jumuka fled. Jumuka had sowed a disseion between Timuchin and Toghrul. Some of Timuchin kinsmen (An'dan and Huocha'er) defected to the prince of Toghrul. History of Yuan Dynasty mentioned that Toghrul and his son intended to assasinate Timuchin via an invitation for an inter-marriage banquet. Timuchin stopped half way. When Toghrul attacked Timuchin, Timuchin got advance information and defeated Toghrul. History of Yuan Dynasty stated that Toghrul had relatively more strength than Timuchin. After Timuchin defeated Toghrul, An'dan and Huocha'er fled to the Naimans. After another defeat, Toghrul fled towards the Naimans and was killed by the Naiman. Toghrul's son fled to Tanguts and pillaged Xixia people. When attacked by the Tanguts, Toghrul's son fled to Chouci in Chinese Turkistan and was killed by Chouci chief. Genghis Kan took over Kerait people and territory in AD 1203.

Tayang-khan's Naimans took over a small territory of Timuchin. Timuchin dispatched Hubilai and Chepe on a forerunner campaign against Tayang-khan. Tayang-khan, though allied with Merkits (Tuotuo), Jadirats (Jumuka), Kerait remnants (A'lingtaishi), Wei-la, Ji-la, Tatar remnants, Katagin and Seljiuts, lost the war to Timuchin. Tayang-khan died with all his soldiers. Jumuka, who first deserted the Toghrul's Keraits, would desert Tayang-khan's Naimans before this fight. Jumuka himself would be turned over by his own man and died in the hands of Timuchin's clan. Katagin, Seljiuts, Duo-lu-ban and remnant Tatars surrendered. When Timuchin continued on to attack Merkits, Tutuo fled to Buirak Khan Naimans. The Merkits fled but were defeated again in AD 1204 and the whole tribe was taken over by Timuchin. In AD 1206, Timuchin (Genghis Khan) held a grand assembly and received the title as Genghis Khan.

Tayichi'ut
Chinese description of the Mongolians applied the knowledge from the "Secret History". According to Secret History, Kabul-khan (Genghis Khan's great grandfather) was invited to Jurchen court in AD 1125 and offended Jurchen emperor Jin Xizong. He had 7 sons altogether, but in accordance with his wish at death, Ambakai was to rule all of Mongols. But according to Rashid, ad-Din (Collected Chronicles), Kabul-khan's son, Kutula, was made khan, while Ambaki was ruler of Tayichi'ut and hence not successor to Kabul-khan. Tayichi'ut could be traced either to the son (Caracqa-lingqum, i.e., Ambaki's father or according to Rashid, grandfather) or uncle (Nanchin) of Kaidu-khan. According to Secret History, Ambaki adopted the tribal name of Tayichi'ut. The Tayichi'ut had a very good relationship with the Kiyats and they belonged to the same category as the forest peoples.

The enmity between Tayichi'uts and Kiyats arose after the death of Yisugei (Timuchin's father), when the Tayichi'uts deserted the camp of Yisugei's widow. Yisugei's brothers left Ho'elun and the Genghis brothers for the Tayichi'ut clan. Speculation here is that Ho'elun might have rejected Yisugei brothers' demand to take her as their wife or concubine, which was the prevalent nomadic way of inheritance. Later, Genghis Khan (Timuchin), at about age 14-15, would murder his elder half-brother Bekhter and possibly got punished by the Tayichi'ut prince who had reportedly captured him and imprisioned him in a cage kept by individual households of the Tayichi'ut clan, till Timuchin found an opportunity to flee home. Aside from the Tayichi'uts, Timuchin had suffered tribulations in the hands of the Merkits, and the Tatars alike.

When Timuchin rallied his people to have him selected as a khan, Jamuka's coalition, consisting of the Tayichi'ut, the Ikires (a branch of Onggirats), the Uru'ud, the Noyakins, the Barulas and the Ba'arin, had defeated Timuchin and possibly forced him into seeking asylum inside of the Jurchen territory, till Timuchin rose again in AD 1196. A time period of about 10 years, up to AD 1196, had been missing for Timuchin, and some people (Chinese Zhao Hong) had speculated that he sought asylum inside of the Jurchen empire (see Zhong Hong per Paul Ratchnevsky). It would be in year AD 1200-1201 that Timuchin would exact his revenge on the Tayichi'uts on which occasion he defeated the Jumaka coalition including the Tayichi'uts and killed all Tayichi'ut men. The battle was waged near the Khalkha River and Jamuka lost it to Timuchin and Toghrul. While Toghrul went on to pursue Jamuka, Timuchin exacted revenge on the Tayich'uts who imprisoned him when he was a teenager: Timuchin slaughtered all the males of the Yayichi'ut clan and took in their women.

Mengwu
This name was derived from the earlier Mengwu Shiwei Tribe. Chinese Zhao Hong, according to Paul Ratchnevsky, said that the Mongols he met did not know their age nor their name other than calling themselves 'Tartars'. Nor did the Jurchens know of their age before they entered China. Later historical records quoted the Jurchen Jin as saying that the 'Mengwu' people had a rebellion led by Kabul-khan. When Jin emperor Xizong died, his grandson colluded with General Wuzu in killing his uncle Dalai, and Dalai's descendants fled to Kabul-khan for assitance in avenging on the Jurchens. This caused the Jurchens to abort their southern campaigns against the Chinese of Southern Song (AD 1127-1279). Jurchen's general Wuzu, the emperor's uncle, had to lead his army northward to fight the 'Mengwu' of Kabul-khan. Unable to fight the Mengku, the Jurchens negotiated a peace treaty and agreed to supply cattle and grains to the Mengwu and moreover conferred him the title of king of the Mengwu people.

According to Rashid al-Din, Okin-barak was the eldest son of Kabul-khan and Bartan-bagatur's elder brother and Yisugei's uncle. Hence Timuchin is like 4 generations apart from Kabul-khan, which is in contradiction with the version in Secret History. It was said that after the migration of the Jurchens to north China, the Borjigin Mongols had emerged in central Mongolia as the leading clan of a loose federation. Kabul Khan raided into Jurchen Jin in AD 1135. After the death of Kabul-khan, the 'Mengwu' people disintegrated. Yesugei, who was chief of the Kiyat subclan of the Borjigin Mongols, was killed by neighboring Tartars in 1175, when Temujin was only twelve years old. The Kiyat rejected Timuchin as their leader and chose one of his kin instead. Temujin and his immediate family were deserted even by Yisugei's brothers who went to Tayichi'ut clan, mainly.

The reason we brought out Tayichi'ut and Mengwu is that they are fundamental to understanding the origins of the Mongols. Later historians, after Khubilai, would apply such wording as "qamug Mangqol Tayici'ut" to imply a coalition or league of the Mongols-Tayichi'uts. The truth, however, is that the word 'Mongols' was adopted and sanctified by Khubilai, much later than the Mongols knew about this name. Before this name change, the Mongols called themselves 'Tartars', in fact. At most, the Mongols would identify with the branch of the forest peoples called the 'Tayichi'uts', the Jukins, the Oirats and the Onggirats. In my opinion, the faction surrounding Yisugei and his sons (Timuchin) is nothing more than a sub-family among the branch of the forest peoples called Tayici'ut or Kiyats. The Kiyat subclan is only part of the family of the Borjigin Mongols. After they left the forest and became pastoral by means of plundering to acquire the herds, they also identified themselves with the pastoral nomads called the Tartars, and they didin't think they were different from the Tartars.

Chinese sources tried to trace the origin of the word 'Mongol', and it had located a tribe called 'Mengwu', said to be a Shiwei tribe of the Tang Period prior to AD 907. This name would later become Moghul in Turkic and Mughal in Persian. Literally, it meant monster or cannibal in Chinese language. It also meant silver in Mongolian language and hence was likened to the way the nomads gave their dynasties their metal names, as in the cases of the Jurchens' Jin, Khitans, and Korean Sillas. One interesting thing about the word Mongqol irgen is that the word 'irgen' is exactly an ancient Chinese pronunciation which could be corrobated by the Cantonese pronunciation of 'irgen' and Japanese pronuncitation of 'nin' or 'dgen'. Still more interesting is the fact that Genghis Khan's name, Timuchin, shared the same prefix as some of his brothers and sister, with Timur meaning nothing more than a Chinese word 'Tie' for iron or smith. That's why historians also disputed Secret History's claim that Yisugei took home Tatar clan leader as a prisoner and applied to his son the same name as the Tatar chief (in AD 1167?, year uncertain being reasonable in that the nomads did not have calendar).

Genghis Khan's Pals & Family Members
When Genghis Khan's father died, his tribesmen deserted for the Tayichi'ut clan, a sub-clan descending from Kabul Khan. Timuchin (Genghis Khan) was taken custody by the Tayichi'uts. When he fled away from Tayichi'ut clan, he was rescued by a Tayichi'ut man who had two sons and one daughter. The junior son of this Tayichi'ut man would be called Chi-lao-wen, one of the four pals of Genghis Khan in his later campaigns. The daughter of the Tayichi'ut man later was married with Genghis Khan. When Timuchin's horses were stolen, he would chase the thieves, and on the way, Timuchin encountered a teenager called Bo-er-jie (of Bodunchar descendancy) who later became one of the 'Four Pals'. Two more pals would be Muhuali (of Jalair clan) and Bo-luo-hun. Chepe was also from the Tayichi'uts clan.

The four sons of Genghis Khan and Boerte:

Jochi (Died 1227)

Chagatai (Died 1242)

Ogodai/ Toregene of the Merkit (Ogodai died 1241)

Tolui/Sorkhaqtani of the Kereyit (Tolui died 1233)

Mongol Brutal Conquests

The Jukin princes, including Buri the kinsman, were killed in AD 1196-1197. In year AD 1200-1201, Genghis Khan would exact his revenge on the Tayichi'uts. On this occasion, he defeated the Jumaka coalition including the Tayichi'uts and killed all Tayichi'uts men. After exterminating the Tartars in AD 1202, Genghis Khan broke with Toghrul's Keraits, and Genghis Kan killed Toghrul in AD 1203. After the defeat of the Tanya-khan Naimans (AD 1204), it would be the Buiruk-khan (another Naiman khan) who was to be captured and killed by Genghis Khan. Buiruk-khan's wives, cattle and children would be taken over in AD 1206, right after the grand assembly at the source of Onon River, on which occasion Genghis Khan took the title of "Genghis". AD 1206 was the 6th year of Jurchen Emperor Zhuangzong's Taihe Era. Kuchlug (son of Tayan-khan) and Tuotuo fled to the upsteam of River Yenesei. As to Genghis, "gen" means great and 'ghis' means the most. (European and Nomdic specialists would point out that it means 'green' or 'sea', simlar to the 'Dalai', Tibetan's title for Dalai Lama.) Genghis Khan selected Karakorum (west-southwest of modern Ulaanbaatar, near modern Har Horin), as the capital.

In AD 1205, Genghis Khan (Timuchin) had invaded Tangut territories and took over the city of Luo-si. In AD 1207, Genghis Khan attacked Tanguts again and took over the city of Ke-wo-luo-hai. Two emissaries were sent to the Kirgiz, and the two tribes of Kirgizs submitted to Genghis Khan in AD 1207. Oirats followed in AD 1208, on which occasion they directed Genghis Khan to the location where Merkits's prince and the son of Tayan-khan (Naiman) stayed. During the battle, most of the Merkit and Naiman troops were drowned in the Irtysch River. Kuchlug, the Naiman prince, fled to Kara-Khitai (Western Liao) where he was taken as son-in-law of the Kara-Khitai ruler. (Later, Kuchlug usurped the Kara-Khitai kingdom by colluding with the Khwarazm.) Remaining Merkits fled to the west and joined the Kipchaks. Uygur ruler, Barchuk, sent an emissary to Genghis Khan and submitted to the Mongol rule, and he personally appeared before Genghis Khan in AD 1211 after waiting several years to see that the Tanguts had just been defeated in AD 1209. In same year, Arslan of the Karluks appeared before Genghis Khan and submitted to his rule.

Attack on the Tanguts
After the grand assembly, Genghis Khan conferred kingship onto his brothers. He conferred 'wan hu' (10,000 households) on Muhuali and Borjie as well as 95 'qian hu' (1,000 households). Both 'wan hu' and 'qian hu' are military titular names. Khuibilai would have his counsellor, Liu Bingzhong, work on governmenatl structure later. Muhuali (Muqali or Mukali) proposed to Genghis Khan that they should first defeat the Tanguts, then the Jurchens and finally the Song Chinese. Since the Chinese chronicle counts the full first year as the No. 1 year, AD 1206 would be the so-called first year of Mongol Dynasty. The official dynastic epoch of 'Yuan' would not come till Khubilai declared it in AD 1271. (Southern Song ended eight years later, in AD 1279.)

The Tanguts were attacked in AD 1205, 1207 and 1208 before they were defeated in AD 1209. This group of people were called the Dangqiang (Qiang) people or Tanguts. They were the descendants of the Tobas and Xianbei people, the Di nomads, plus Chinese and possibly the Uygurs in the area of today's Ningxia & Inner Mongolia. Their ancestor, Toba Sigong, a Dangxiang nomad with a Toba family name, had come to the aid of Tang Dynasty in AD 907 when rebel Huang Cao sacked Xi'an the Tang capital. Tang conferred him the title of Duke Xia and the Tang family name of Li. Later Xia Duke, Li Yuanhao, declared himself an emperor and founded Xixia (Western Xia) Dynasty. At one time, Emperor Li Renxiao sought aid with Jurchen Emperor Jin Sizong for quelling rebellion and hence allied with Jurchen Jin in AD 1165 as a vassal. After the death of Li Renxiao, a brother by the name of Li An'quan usurped the throne.

From AD 1205 onward, Mongols attacked Tanguts six times. Genghis Khan first accused Xixia of giving asylum to Toghrul's people, i.e., King Toghrul Wang-han's son Yi-la-he-sang-kun. In 1209, 1217, and 1226-1227, Mongols reached Mt Helanshan three times and laid siege of Xingqing-fu city.

In AD 1205, Mongols sacked two border garrisons, Li-ji-li-zai and Luo-si-cheng, pillaged people and camels, and retreated within one month. Xia Emperor Huanzong repaired castles thereafter, declared amnesty, and renamed capital of Xingqing-fu into Zhongxing-fu. Tanguts intruded into Mongol plains in late 1205, only to withdraw after hearing of Jurchen defeat. In the autumn of 1207, campaigns against the Tanguts began on the pretext that Tanguts did not surrender tributes. Genghis Khan attacked the citadel Wo-luo-hai-cheng, to the north of Hetao and near the northern pass of Lang-shan Mountain. Mongols slaughtered the city after 40 days of fightings. Five months later, Mongols retreated after Tangut Emperor Xiangzong dispatched relief armies.

In the autumn of 1207, campaigns against the Tanguts began on the pretext that Tanguts did not surrender tributes. Genghis Khan attacked the citadel Wo-luo-hai-cheng, to the north of Hetao and near the northern pass of Lang-shan Mountain. Mongols slaughtered the city after 40 days of fightings. Five months later, Mongols retreated after Tangut Emperor Xiangzong dispatched relief armies. In the spring of AD 1209, Wei-wu-er (Uygur) came to show respect. In the spring of 1209, Genghis Khan personally led the 650 mile march on the Tanguts in the south. This was after the Huihe people in Gaochang killed the governor ["shao jian"] of Western Liao and surrendered to Mongols as a vassal. Mongols, utilizing the northwestern exposure, attacked Tangut's Wo-luo-hai Pass again. Tangut Emperor Xiangzong [Li An'quan] dispatched son Cheng-zhen to the front, and Tangut Deputy Marshal Gao Yi was killed after being caught by the Mongols. Alternatively speaking, Mongols captured Tangut deputy marshal Gao Linggong and the city of Ke-wu-la [Wo-luo-hai?]. In April, Mongols sacked Wo-luo-hai after a Chinese [Xie Muhuan] pursuaded a Song Chinese defender into surrendering the city. Tangut's "tai fu" [imperial tutor] Xi-bi-e-da was caught by Mongols. Mongols then intruded southward towards Ke-yi-men Pass. Tangut General Weimingling-gomng, with 50000 relief army, ambushed Mongols in a valley and drove Mongols out of the mountain pass. Two months later, Mongols seduced Tanguts into a trap, defeated them, sacked Ke-yi-men, and intruded to Zhongxing-fu capital. By Sept, Mongols flooded the city with water from the Yellow River. Water as deep as several feet destroyed houses in the city and drowned numerous people. Tangut's request with Jurchens was declined. By Dec, however, flood destroyed the Mongol dike and flooded the Mongol camps instead.

In the winter, Genghis Khan turned to Kuchlug and Tuotuo in the northwest, causing Kuchlug to flee to Kara Khitai while Tuotuo was killed by a stray arrow. In Jan of AD 1210, the siege of Tangut capital was released when the waters, breached by the Mongols for flooding the Xia capital, flowed to the Mongol camp instead. Mongols released the Tangut 'tai fu' for a peace talk. Peace was secured only when Tangut emperor (Li An'quan) delivered his youngest daughter (rumored to be later responsible for poisoning Genghis when he re-attacked Xixia) to Genghis Khan as a bribe, but the Tanguts refused to supply troops to the Mongols as auxiliary. Tanguts would pay for this later.

After Mongols left, Tanguts, angry that the Jurchens did not come to their aid, broke the peace treaty with the Jurchens which had been effective as of AD 1165, and a new treaty would not be signed till AD 1225 when they faced new waves of Mongol attackes. Tanguts attacked Jurchen's border town but were defeated, and hence they asked Genghis Khan to attack the Jurchens. Tanguts would be engaged in ten years' border wars with Jurchens. Tanguts continued to raid into Jurchen territories. Jurchens and Tanguts had ten years of border wars since AD 1213. Wars continued till AD 1223.

Attack on the Jurchens
In AD 1211, Jurchens conspired to attack the Mongols by building the castle of Wu-sa-bao, according to History of Yuan Dynasty. Genghis Khan ordered Chepe on an attack. Genghis Khan used to pay tributes to the Jurchens. When Jurchen Emperor Weishaowang (i.e., King of Weishao, Wanyan Yongji) enthroned in AD 1209, Genghis Khan refused to take Jurchen imperial decree by spitting in front of Jurchen emissary.

The Jurchens, ancestors of the later Manchu, had in early days defeated the Khitans in a seven-year war (AD 1115-1122), by means of an alliance with Northern Song (AD 960-1127), and they founded the Jin or Gold Dynasty (AD 1115-1234). They subdued neighboring Koryo (Korea) in AD 1126 and invaded Song Dynasty, while the defeated Kitan Liao ruler fled with the small remnant to the Tarim Basin where he estalished Kara-Khitai (Western Liao Dynasty, AD 1124-1234) among the Uygur vassals. The Jurchens had fights with the early 'Mengwu' people (led by Kabul-khan) in 1139 and in 1147, and they nailed Ambaki and Kabul-khan's elder son to wooden donkeys and hence were feuds of Genghis Khan's Mongols.

In AD 1211, Genghis Khan held another khuriltai (assembly) at the River Kerulen. Arslan-khan of the Karluks came to surrender to the Mongols, and Wei-wu-er (Uygur) chieftan came to show respect, too.

In Feb 1211, Genghis Khan led three sons and Jebe on a campaign against northwestern territories of Jurchen Jin and defeated a Jurchen general called Hu Shahu. Genghis Khan had 95 'qian hu', close to 100,000 men, while Hu Shahu boasted of 300,000 men. Genghis Khan defeated Jurchen General Ding Xue at Yehuling Ridge (wild fox ridge). In July, Chepe took over the castle of Wu-sa-bao. In August, Mongols defeated Jurchens at Xuanping. Wanyan Yongji was the nephew of late Jurchen Emperor Xizong. (Between Xizong and Wanyan Yongji, there had elapsed three Jurchen emperors, Jin Feidi, Jin Shizong and Jin Zhuangzong, and one usurper, King Hailingwang.) Jurchen Emperor Wanyan Yongji then sent Wanyan Jiujian and 400,000 strong relief to counter the Mongols. One Jurchen general called Ming'an proposed that Jurchen army should take defensive action, but he was rebutted. When Ming'an was asked to reprimand the Mongols as an emissary, Ming'an surrenderred to Genghis Khan and disclosed the military information. On the ensuing night, Genghis Khan raided the Jurchen camp and defeated them. In Sept, Dexing governor office was taken, and Juyongguan Pass was deserted. Jebe (Chepe or Zhebie), with aid from the Khitans and Chinese who served in Jurchen army, notably with the help of a Jurchen general called Ming'an, took over Juyongguan Pass of the Great Wall (near Beijing). Chepe went on to lay siege of Peking (Zhongdu). In the winter times, Mongols attacked Jurchen's ranch, and Yelu A'mei surrendered. Jochi, Chagatai and Ogodai took over numerous prefectures of northern China.

Mongols, after attacking Peking for 24 hours, failed to enter the city. Genghis Khan retreated back to Juyongguan Pass. In AD 1211, Genghis rested at the northern Jurchen territories.

In AD 1212, a Khitan who served as a Jurchen general, Yelu Liuge, took over east Liaoning Province and sent an emissary to Genghis Khan, expressing wish to be a vassal. Genghis Khan took over more Jurchen cities in southern Manchuria. Genghis Khan defeated a Jurchen relief army of 300,000 led by Heshilieqiujin. In autumn of AD 1212, Genghis Khan laid a siege of Jurchen's Xijing (west capital) and destroyed Jurchen relief army at Migukou. While attacking Jurchen's Xijing, Genghis Khan was wounded by an erratic arrow. Hence, Genghis Khan retreated. But in Sept and Dec, Mongols continued their attacks in Manchuria.

In AD 1213, Yelu Liuge declared himself King of Liao and the Era of Yuantong. In July, Mongols took over Xuande governor office, and Tolui took over Dexing governor office. At Huailai, near Peking, Genghis Khan defeated Jurchen governor ('xing sheng') Wanyan Gang and marshal Gao Qi. Jurchens retreated to Juyongguan Pass. Genghis Khan then attacked Zhuoluo of Hebei Prov, and Jurchen General Hu Shahu deserted so-called Xijing (west capital). Genghis Khan, marching out of Zijingguan Pass, would take over Zhuozhou Prefecture. When a Khitan general surrendered the Beikou city, Chepe would capture Juyongguan Pass thereafter. In August of this year, Jurchen Emperor (Wanyan Yongji) was usurped and killed by Jurchen General Hu Shahu. Wanyan Xun (King of Feng) was selected as Emperor Xuanzong. Genghis Khan led three columns against Jurchens again, with Jochi, Chagatai and Ogodai attacking Shanxi Prov along the Taihang Mountains in the west, and a brother (Ha-sa-er) attacking Liaoning Prov in the east. Genghis Khan and Tolui attacked Hebei Prov in the middle. Genghis Khan ordered Muhuali to attack Mizhou Prefecture whose people were slaughtered. Many Khitans and Chinese joined the Mongolians to avenge on the Jurchens. This will include famous generals like Chinese brothers, Shi Tianni, Shi Tianxiang, Shi Tian'an and Shi Tianze etc, who were employed by Muhuali. Shi Tianni was conferred the title of 'wan hu'.

In March of AD 1214, Genghis Khan stationed his armies north of Peking. An emissary was sent to Jurchen emperor for a ceasefire, and Jurchen emperor surrendered Wanyan Yongji's daughter (Princess Qiguo), 500 boys and girls, and 3000 horses to Genghis Khan. Jurchen emperor ordered that his prime minister Wanyan Fuxing accompany Genghis Khan out of Juyong Pass. Jurchen emperor, however, made a strategic mistake by relocating his capital to Bianliang (today's Kaifeng) in May, which essentially enraged Genghis Khan as well as cut themselves from the Jurchen base in Manchuria. Wanyan Fuxing was ordered to assist Prince Wanyan Shouzhong at Beijing.

In AD 1213, Genghis Khan resumed warfare against the Jurchens. Using Jurchen's relocation as an excuse, Genghis Khan sent Muhuali against Jurchens. Muhuali attacked Jurchen's northern capital in west Liaoning Province at the advice of Shi Tianni. Shi Tianxiang was responsible for defeating 200,000 Jurchen army at the northern capital of 'Bei-jing' (i.e., today's Ningchen of Inner Mongolia). When Mongols returned to attack Beijing, Prince Wanyan Shouzhong fled to Bianliang in July. In Oct, Muhuali attacked Liaodong (east Liaoning Prov). A Jurchen general (Zhang Jing) at Jinzhou killed Jurchen 'jie-du-shi', declared himself King of Linghai, and surrendered to the Mongols.

Siege of Zhongdu (Beijing) began in AD 1214. Siege weaponry like mangonels and battering-rams would be utilized. Meantime, the Mongol armies devastated northern China, sacking numerous cities in Hebei/Shandong provinces, reducing them into all ruins. In AD 1215, Jurchen general at Tongzhou surrendered to the Mongols. When Muhuali attacked Bei-jing in Feb, Jurchen generals Yin-da-hu and Wu-gu-lun surrendered. Jurchen marshal at 'xingzhong-fu' governor office also surrendered. In March, Jurchen relief army for Zhongdu (Beijing) was defeated at Ba-zhou Prefecture. In April, Qing-zhou and Shun-zhou were taken. Zhang Jing rebelled when being called upon, and rebellion was quelled. Zhang Jing's brother claimed to be Emperor Hanxing (reviving Han) at Jinzhou and declared the Xinglong Era. In May, Wanyan Fuxing took poison to commit suicide, and Beijing fell to the Mongols. By AD 1215, Beijing (known as Yanjing) fell, and history recorded the horrors of massacre and suicides. During the siege, the Mongolian army, short of grain supply during the siege, would line their soldiers up, select soldiers via one out of every hundred or so, and kill them for food. As to the residents inside of Beijing, hunger led to cannibalism, too, and at the time when Beijing fell, innumerable number of women and girls jumped down from the city wall to commit suicide. Some western traveller recorded that the human oil from burning those dead bodies had been so thick that it did not dissappear for a long time. After taking over Peking, Genghis Khan acquired his later prime minister, Yelu Chucai (Yeh-lu Chu'tsai). Ming'an was ordered to guard Beijing. Genghis Khan took a summer break to avoid the heat. In July, a bandit leader on Hongluoshan Mountain, Du Xiu, was pacified and conferred the post of 'jie-du-shi' for Jinzhou.

Genghis Khan wrote to Jurchen emperor, asking him to order all cities in Hebei and 'shan-dong' (east of Huashan Mountain?) to surrender to the Mongols as well as downgrade the Jurchen title to King of He-nan (south of the Yellow River). Jin Emperor Xuanzong declined this request, and Genghis Khan ordered Shi Tianni on a southern campaign. In August, Shi Tianni took over Pingzhou. Shi Jindao under Muhuali would take over Guangning-fu governor office. Altogether 862 Jurchen cities were taken.

Jurchen 'xuanfu' Hupu Wannu took over Liaodong (east Liaoning Prov) and declared himself King of Tian (heaven), dynastic name of 'Da Zhen' and Tiantai Era. Yelu Liuge came to pay respect in Nov and left his son as a hostage. Shi Tianxiang captured Jurchen 'jie-du-shi' at Xingzhou (Zhao Shouyue). In AD 1216, Genghis Khan returned north, and Zhang Jing's brother (Zhang Zhi) took over Xingzhong-fu. Muhuali quelled Zhang Zhi.

In autumn of AD 1216, Mongols came to Shenxi from their early campaigns against Tanguts in the west. In AD 1217, Mongols attacked Tanguts for the fourth time on the pretext that Tanguts did not obey appropriation. Mongols laid siege of Xingqing-fu. Tangut Emperor Zunzong fled to "xi-jing" [western capital], and assigned son De-ren for city defence. De-ren requested for peace with Mongols.

Mongols then attacked Tongguan Pass in the west. Mongols were defeated by Jurchen army called 'Hua-Mao-jun Garrison'. Mongols retreated after reaching Bian-jing (Kaifeng). In Oct, Hupu Wannu surrendered and sent his son to the Mongols as a hostage; Hupu Wannu rebelled thereafter and declared the dynastic name of Dong-xia (Eastern Xia Dynasty). In AD 1217, a monk took over Wuping, and Shi Tianxiang quelled it. Mongol General Cha-han defeated Jurchens at Ba-zhou, and Jurchens requested for peace. Genghis Khan conferred Muhuali kingship of the Peking territory and the title of 'tai shi' in August. Muhuali went on to take over various cities on Shandong Peninsula. Tu-man tribe rebelled in Mongolia and was quelled. In AD 1218, Mongols departed from Zijingguan Pass and captured Jurchen 'yuanshuai xingshi' Zhang Rou. Muhuali departed 'xi-jing' for 'he-dong' (east of Yellow River) and captured Taiyuan, Dai, Feng, Lu, Huo-zhou and Pingyang of Shanxi Province. Jurchen General Wu Xian attacked Man-zhou, and Zhang Rou defeated Wu Xian. Tanguts were attacked in this year, and Tangut Emperor fled to 'xi-liang' (west of Gansu Province). A Khitan, by the name of Liuge, took over 'Jiangdong' (east of the river) of Koryo. Mongols dispatched Ha-zhen and Zhao-la against Liu-ge, and Koryo king requested for vassalage.

In AD 1219, Zhang Rou defeated Wu Xian again and took over Qiyang and Zhongshan. In June of AD 1219, Xi-yu (western territories) of Chinese Turkistan killed Mongol emissaries, and Genghis Khan personally campaigned against 'Xi-yu' and captured chieftan Ha-zhi-er-zhi-lan-tu. (In AD 1218, the governor of Oyrat, an eastern province of Khwarizm, robbed and killed several Mongol merchants.) In autumn, Muhuali captured Jie-zhou and slaughtered Jiang-zhou. In AD 1220, Genghis Khan took over Puhua, Xun-shi-gan and Wo-tuo-luo-er cities. Wu Xian surrendered when Muhuali arrived at Zhending. Muhuali conferred Shi Tianni the post in charge of the western armies north of the Yellow River and assigned Wu Xian the deputy post. More Jurchen generals surrendered. Jurchen 'jie-du-shi' [governor or magistrate] at Xing-zhou surrendered, too. In AD 1221, Genghis Khan attacked Puo-ha-er and Xie-mi-si-gan, i.e., Bukhara and Samarkand. Jochi attacked Yang-jie-gan and Ba-er-zhen. In April, when stationing in Tiemen'guan [iron gate] Pass, Jurchen emperor sent an emissary requesting for being a "junior brother" of the Mongols. Jurchen 'xingsheng' [governor] at Dongping deserted the city, and Yan Shi was ordered to guard it. Southern Song Chinese sent Gou Mengyue for peace with the Mongols. Song general Shi Gui in southern Shandong prov surrendered. In autumn, Genghis Khan attacked Ban-le-he, while Jochi-Chagatai-Ogodai attacked Yue-long-chi. In Oct, Tolui took over Ma-lu-ch-ye-ke, Ma-lu and Xi-la-si. Muhuali departed from 'He-xi' (west of the Yellow River) and attacked Suide, Bao'an and Yan'an of northern Shenxi Prov. In Nov, Song Chinese governor Zhang Lin surrendered.

In AD 1222, Tolui took over Tu-si and Ni-cha-wu-er and pillaged Mu-la-yi statelet, i.e., Munaixi (Hashasheen or Assassin or Arsacia?), south of the Caspian Sea. Tolui and Genghis Khan converged on Talihan Castle and captured it. Muhuali failed to take over Fengxiang of Shenxi Prov. Jala ad-Din fled to combine forces with Mieli-khan and defeated Mongol general Hu-du-hu. Genghis Khan then defeated and captured Mieli-khan. Ba-la was ordered to pursue Jala ad-Din across the Indus River. In autumn, Jurchens dispatched Wusunzhongdun to the Mongol camp in Huihe [Uygur] territories for peace again. Genghis Khan rediculed Jurchens for not taking his offer to have Jurchens be the King of 'He-nan' [land to the south of Yellow River]. When Wusunzhongdun requested for mercy, Genghis Khan stated that Jurchens surrender the cities in Guan-xi (west of Hanguguan pass). Jurchen Duke Pingyang-gong surrendered Qinglong-bao castle. In Oct, Jurchen 'hezhong-fu' governor office surrendered.

Jurchens would be defeated again later, but not until AD 1234. Many Jurchen generals surrendered to and then rebelled against the Mongols.

Khwarazm Campaign, Fergana Valley Campaign (AD 1219-1223)
Western scholars, in their account of Genghis Khan's generals, would tout Subedei as the most brilliant. B.H. Liddel Hart devoted the first chapter of "Great Captains Unveiled" to 'Sabutai'. Cai Dongfan, however, commented that it would be Muhali (Muqali) who would be responsible for shaping Genghis Khan's bandit psychology into that of a ruler.

In AD 1217, Muhuali (Mukali) was designated vicero of Northern China. In Mongolia, Genghis Khan campaigned against the Keraits and Tumats who had rebelled earlier. A treaty was signed with Muhammad II of Khwarazm. In the same year, Genghis Khan campaigned against Kuchlug in Kara-Khitai (Western Liao Dynasty), the son of deposed khan of the Naiman. Kuchlug had earlier usurped the Khitai Kingdom of his Khitan father-in-law. Kuchlug colluded with Khwarazm in ursurping the Kara-Khitai kingdom. Kuchlug, to make his new wife happy, forced the Kara-Khitai people into conversion to Buddhism. Genghis Khan hence sent Jebe on a campaign against Kuchlug.

Genghis's general, Jebe, overran Kuchlug's forces west of Kashgar. Kuchlug was captured and executed, and Karakitai was annexed. By 1218, the Mongol state extended as far west as Lake Balkash and adjoined Khwarizm, a Muslim state that reached the Caspian Sea in the west and the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea in the south. Khwarizm, a previous vassal of the Kara-Khitai, had colluded with Kuchlug in overthrowing the Khitan ruler. Right after the conquest of the Kara Khitai, the Mongols came into conflict with Khwarezm. So to say that Naiman's Kuchlug led Genghis Khan to Kara-khitai, and Kara-khitai led Genghis Khan to Khwarezm. Starting with Khwarezm, the wars for dominating the world began.

In AD 1218, the governor of Oyrat, an eastern province of Khwarizm, robbed and killed several Mongol merchants, and more over killed Mongol emissaries. The Mongol troops led by Jochi was first defeated by troops of Shah Mohammed of Khwarezm. Genghis Khan retaliated with a force of more than 200,000 troops. The Uygurs came to aid the Mongols. Genghis Khan and Subedei attacked from the north with 90,000 men, while Jebi (Chepe) attacked from the east with 30,000 men. Genghis Khan, giving order that Chagatai and Ogodai attack Oyrat continuously, would send three columns into Khwarizm territories. Jochi went to the northwest, one column to the southeast, and Genghis Khan himself to the northeast for Tashkent. Otrar's governor, Inalchuq, would be killed by feeding melted silver into the mouth and ears etc. Shah Mohammed-shah led 400,000 men against the Mongols. It was said that 180,000 were killed during the battle. Jala ad-Din (Jalal al-Din), the son of Sultan Muhammad and governor of Afghanistan territory, would stay to defend Bukhara and Samarkand in Fergana Valley, but was defeated by the Mongols. In AD 1221, the Mongols captured Bokhara and Samarkand. Mongols slaughtered numerous cities during their campaigns. Genghis Khan pursued the Khwarizm armies to the River Amu-darya and crossed to the west bank of the river. Hearing that Khwarizm-shah had re-organized his troops in Samarkand, Genghis Khan would cross River Amu-darya to campaign to the east. After taking over Samarkand where the soldiers surrendered after the Shah fled, Genghis Khan would kill all 40,000 prisoners at night. About 30,000 skilled workers and artizans would be spared, and another 30,000 labor would be taken as slaves. Subedei and Chepe went on to pursue the Shah with 2 tuman (20,000 men). After crossing River Amu-darya, Jebe went northwest and Subedei to the southwest. They raided deep into the Persian territories and converged on the coast of the Caspian Sea. Khwarazm-shah, being attacked by a local feud, would flee to an island to the southeast of the sea where Khwarazm-shah died of miseries. Jala ad-Din was ordered to succeed him.

Khwarazm-shah, deeply influenced by his own mother Terken Khatun, had erected a different son as his heir. This caused rifts with his son Jala ad-Din. Terken Khatun was from the Turkic Kang-li tribe, said to be related to the ancient Kangju statelet of Yuezhi ethnic nature. The Shah ruled the heterogeneou peoples without mercy. In face of Mongol attacks, Khwarazm empire, with a combined army of 400,000, simply collapsed.

Subedei and Chepe later captured the mother, wife and daughters of Khwarazm-shah and gave them to Chagatai and his generals, and the son of the dead Mongol merchant, as concubines. Subedei and Chepe then received order from Genghis Khan to attack a tribe called 'Qin-cha' (Kipchak or Qipchak) north of the Caspian Sea. This is because Qin-cha tribe had offered asylum to the Merkits. Subedei and Chepe raided towards the northwest.

Genghis Khan, after taking a rest for the summer, would order Jochi, Ogodai and Tolui on a campaign against Ur-da-chi (Urgenchi or Urganchi) in the south. Ur-da-chi (Urgenchi or Urganchi) selected a Kangli Turk as their head. After fighting for 7 days and 7 nights, the city, situated on the two banks of River Amu-darya, fell, and most of the residents, except for artizans and women, were slaughtered. Genghis Khan then ordered Tolui to attack Khurasan while he himself attacked a castle called Talihan Mountain. Tolui marched along the west bank of River Amu-darya and marched towards Khurasan in the northwest. Hearing Genghis had trouble taking over Talihan, Tolui returned along the east coast of the Caspian. South of the Caspian, he defeated several Muslim city statelets. Tului then converged with Genghis and took over the city called Talihan which was already under siege for 7 months. All infantry soldiers of Talihan were killed while some cavalry fled.

At this time, Jala ad-Din re-assembled some army and combined his army with a brother and a khan [Mielike], numbering 60 to 70 thousand. In today's Kabul, Afghanistan, the Mongol armies under the banner of Genghis Khan's adopted son were thoroughly defeated by Jala ad-Din. In the siege of the city of Bami'an, Genghis Khan's grandson (i.e., Chagatai's son) was killed by an arrow. Chagatai would kill all people and animals of Bami'an, and Bami'an (today's Bamian of Afghanistan?) was said to be still a desolate place today. Then, Genghis Khan went southward towards Kabul. Two Jala ad-Din generals had a quarrel and split, and Jala ad-Din fled towards India, jumped into the Indus River and swam to the opposite shore. Jala ad-Din would later make a comeback. A Mongol general was sent across river to pursue Jala ad-Din. Genghis Khan then swept northward along the west bank of the Indus River and slaughtered whoever did not sumbit. Mongols slaughtered 1.6 million people altogether in Central Asia. Under the advice of Yelu Chucai, Genghis Khan recalled his soldiers across the Indus River. Genghis Khan went northward and then eastward across the River Amu-darya. In Kabul, Genghis Khan sent orders to recall Jochi's column and Jebi/Subetei column. Then, they continued eastward. When passing through Samarkand, he ordered Khwarizm-shah's mother and wife to go east with him. Khubilai was at the age of 11 at this time.

First European Campaign (AD 1222-1223)
Right after the war in 1219-1222 against the Khwarezmian empire, Chepe (Jebi) and Subedei, with a detachment of about 25,000 Mongols, detoured around the Caspian Sea and raided into Georgia. They attacked the Kipchak on the pretext that they had offered asylum to Merkit remnants. While Genghis Khan was on the bank of Indus River, Jebi and Subeitei had marched westward and crossed Taihe Ridge, i.e., the Caucasus Mountains. After defeating the Qin-cha (Kipchak or Qipchak) relief armies comprising of Georgians and Cumans, they went on to attack the Russians. Cumans or Kumans, identified with the Kipchaks, were known in Russian as Polovtsi. Cumans had come from northwestern Asian Russia, conquered Southern Russia and Walachia in the 11th cent., and for almost two centuries warred intermittently with the Byzantine Empire, Hungary, and Kiev. In the early 12th century, Cuman were defeated by the Eastern Slavs. The Mongols would decisively defeat them in AD 1245.

Coming out of the Caucasus, they met several Qin-cha tribes under Yulijie. Jebi and Subeitei sent a local defector general to Qin-cha (Kipchak or Qipchak) to show goodwill, and then attacked the Qin-cha armies after they did not put themselves on alert. The Mongols killed chieftan Yulijie and his son. Then Jebi and Subetei sent a request to Jochi for relief armies. Jochi had just conquered Wu-er-da-chi (Urgenchi) and rested his armies on the east coast of the Caspian. After defeating the Georgians and the Cumans in the Caucasus, Jebi and Subetei, with reinforcement from Jochi, crossed the Volga River and marched towards the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea. They advanced into the steppes of the Kuban in AD 1222. Walking across the frozen Sea of Azov, the Mongols again defeated the Cumans and captured Astrakhan. At this time, another Qin-cha (Kipchak or Qipchak) chieftan, Huotuosihan (brother of the dead Yulijie), came to avenge on his brother's death. The Mongols led Huotuosihan into a trap and destroyed majority of his armies. Huotuosihan fled northward towards Rus which boasted of 70 tribes at that time. The Mongols crossed the Don River into Russia. They penetrated the Crimea and then turned north into Ukraine.

In Southern Russia, there was a tribe called Halichi whose chieftan, Mizhisila (Mstislav?), was son-in-law of Huotuosihan. Mizhisila called on various Rus tribes including the Kiev tribe and Chernigov tribe in the south and Vladimir tribe in the north. Mstislav rallied troops from Kiev, Smolensk, Kursk, Chernigov and other principalities. An army of 82,000 was assembled, and they converged with Huotuosihan's Qin-cha (Kipchak or Qipchak) tribe. Jebi and Subetei tried to trick the Rus by sending 10 emissaries for peace. Huotuosihan told Mizhisila how his brother died of Mongol trick, and they killed 8 Mongols, releasing two back to Mongol camp with ears cut. Jebi and Subetei sent the two lucky guys to the Rus camp again to declare a war. Mizhisila (Mstislav?) led 10,000 cavalry across the Dnieper River and finished the Mongol reconnaissance team of a dozen people on the east bank. (Some Mongol expert claimed that the Russian-Cuman army of 80,000 was under the leadership of Mstislav, that Mstislave was prince of Kiev and that they attacked the Mongols while Mongols were camping near the mouth of the Dnieper River. Cai Dongfan wrote that Kiev prince was Ruomu and that the Mongols were pursuing Kipchak or Qipchak tribe to Rus, not resting at Dnieper River.) In May 1223, Mstislav chased the Mongols to River Khalka. Mstislav and Huotuosihan, without consulting with their allies, crossed River Khalka by themselves. They were totally defeated by Subedei. Mstislav then fled across the River Khalka (near the Azov Sea) and sunken all ships. Mongols crossed River Khalka, attacked Kiev tribe & Chernigov tribe and annihilated them. Altogether 6 chieftans and 70 marquis were killed. Chernigov chieftan was sent to Jochi for execution. Youli the second of Rus tribe of Vladimir had dispatched his nephew, Constantin, to the relief of Mstislav. Hearing of Mstislav defeat, Constantin fled home. At this time, Jebe got ill. In AD 1224, Subetei led the expedition home, after a trek of more than 6,400 kilometers. On the east coast of the Caspian, Subetei gave back the relief army to Jochi. On the way home, Jebe died of illness.

The Last Campaign of Genghis Khan
Muhali was busy attacking Jurchen Jin armies on both banks of Liao River, northeast of the Yellow River, Shanxi-Shenxi Provinces, and Shangdong peninsula. In AD 1223, Muhuali died of illness and was conferred King of Lu-guo Fief posthumously.

In Oct, Jurchen Emperor Xuanzong died, and his son, Wanyan Shouxu, got enthroned as Emperor Aizong. Song Chinese sent Gou Mengyue to Mongols again. In AD 1224, Song General Peng Yibin at Daming invaded He-bei (north of Yellow River) and Shi Tianni defeated Peng. Genghis Khan returned from his campaigns in India. In Jan of AD 1235, Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia. In Feb of AD 1235, Wu Xian rebelled in Zhending and killed Shi Tianni. Li Quan rebelled in Zhongshan. After the death of Muhuali, ex-Jurchen general Wu Xian rebelled and killed Shi Tianni. Wu Xian cooperated with Song Dynasty's General Peng Yibin in fighting Shi Tianze. Shi Tianze requested aid from Muhuali's son and killed Peng Yibin. In March, Shi Tianze drove Wu Xian away. In June, Song General Peng Yibin answered Wu Xian's rebellion, but Shi Tianze captured and killed Peng.

Since Western Xia had refused to provide troops in the war against the Khwarizm, and more over, signed another alliance treaty with Jurchen Jin, Genghis Khan led a force of 180,000 troops for a new campaign against the Tanguts in AD 1225. One year earlier, in AD 1224, Mongol omnipotent magistrate for Northern China, i.e., Bei-lu, already attacked Tanguts' Yinzhou city where tens of thousands of Tanguts died and defender Ta-hai was caught alive. Genghis Khan, en route of return, first attacked Tanguts' Shazhou and laid the siege for half a year. At Shazhou, Tanguts burnt dead the Mongols digging through a tunnel, and Mongols withdraw the siege for a retreat to Mongolia after Tangut Emperor De-wang agreed to send in hostage. In AD 1225, Jochi died in the camp north of the Caspian Sea.

In AD 1226, Genghis Khan attacked the Tanguts the sixth and last time Mongols attacked the westside or hindside of the Tanguts first and then turned around to the east. Like in 1209 & 1217, Mongols intruded into east side of Helanshan Mountain and lay siege of Xingqing-fu (i.e., today's Yinchuan of Ningxia and Tanguts' capital).

In the spring of 1226, Genghis Khan, after zoning the fiefdoms for his four sons, attacked Tanguts on the pretext that no hostage was sent in yet. Two columns of armies were arranged, with one prong attacking Shazhou from the west, and another prong striking southward against Xixia. In Feb, Genghis Khan took over Heisui city [Khara Khoto], reached Mt Helanshan, caught Tangut General A-sha-gan-bu, and waited for a conversion with "western route". (A-sha-gan-bu had insulted Genghis Khan's emissary on the matter of attacking Jurchens together with Mongols.) Mongol "western route" first attacked Shazhou by utilizing a defector Tangut general Li Qianbu. Li Qianbu and Mongol General Hudu-timur barely escaped a banquet set up by Shazhou defenders who faked a surrender. With pleading from Li Qianbu, Genghis Khan spared the city after sacking it. Mongol "western route" then attacked Suzhou with a Tangut called Cha-han who grew up among Mongols since childhood. Suzhou defenders killed the general who was the brother of Li Qianbu. Mongols slaughtered the city, only sparing 106 households who were relatives of Li Qianbu. After Suzhou would be Ganzhou whose defender was the father of Cha-han. Tangut deputy defender killed the whoel family of Cha-han's father. Mongols failed to sack Ganzhou after six attacks. At this time, Genghis Khan led his forces to Ganzhou, and combined for an attack at Ganzhou. Ganzhou was spared slaughter with the pleading from Cha-han. In autumn, Mongols took over Xiliang-fu when defender surrendered. Hence, the whole "Western Corridor" fell to Mongols.

In Sept, Li Quan captured Zhang Bin. Genghis Khan then trepassed the Tengri Desert for the region called "Yellow River Nine Winding". Mongols took over Yingli, and then dispatched a contingent against Xiazhou. Mongols, with two columns, swept through the Tangut territory on the east bank of the Western Bend. By Nov, two columns pinched Tangut Xiping-fu city. A Xixia general, by the name of Weimingling-gong, led 100000 relief army from Zhongxing-fu, and challenged the Mongols for a battle near Helanshan Mountain. (Helan means great horse in northern dialect.) Mongols crossed the frozen Yellow River and fought Tanguts on the two banks. Xixia armies were defeated at Helanshan. Weimingling-gong retreated into Lingzhou city with remnants and converged with deposed Tangut Prince De-ren. In Nov, Genghis Khan lay siege of Tanguts' Ling-zhou. Mongols then sacked Lingzhou, and De-ren was killed.

Mongol armies then took over various cities including Lingzhou Prefecture, Shizhou Prefecture, and then Lintao governor office including Taohe and Xining prefectures. Five stars, in a row, were noted in the skies. In Dec, Li Quan surrendered. Zhang Rou was conferred marshal and 'qian hu'. Ogodai lay siege of Jurchen 'nan-jing', i.e., southern capital, and dispatched Tang Qing for extracting tributes from the Jurchens.

After the Battle of Lingzhou, Mongols pushed at Zhongxing-fu the capital from Yanzhou. In AD 1227, Genghis Khan attacked Tanguts' capital, and in Feb, took over Lintiao-fu. In Mar, took over Xining prefecture and Xindu-fu. In April, took over Deshun prefecture and killed 'jie-du-shi' Ai Shen and 'jin shi' Ma Jianlong. At Deshun, Xixia General Ma Jianlong resisted the Mongols for days and personally led charges against the Mongols outside of the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died of arrow shots. Genghis Khan, after taking over Deshun, went to Liupanshan Mountain (Qingshui County, Gansu Prov) for shelter from the severe summer.

In May, Mongols dispatched Tang Qing to Jurchens again. In Jun, Jurchens sent Wanyan Hezhou for peace. Genghis Khan stated that he had said one year ago, when five stars converged onto one line, that Mongols should not kill people at random, and Genghis Khan made it an decree not to kill at random.

At Tangut capital of Zhongxing-fu, rightside prime minister Gao Lianghui defended the citywall for half a year, day in and day out, and died of illness. An earthquake struck the capital. Epidemic erupted and more than half of the citizens and soldiers caught illness. The new Xixia emperor, i.e., Xia Modi, being attacked by the Mongols, surrendered to the Mongols by requesting for one month grace period. Genghis Khan, deeply ill himself, nominally agreed to the surrender request but secretly ordered the slaughter of the city before his death. In August, Xia Modei left the capital for the Mongol camp where Tu-lei killed him on the spot. The Mongols killed the Tangut emperor and his royal family members. Pillaging erupted throughout the capital. Mongols pillaged Tanguts' "royal burial sites". (Later, Mongols dug up Southern Song Dynasty toyal tombs in Hangzhou of Zhejiang Prov as well.) At the pleading of Cha-han, Mongol stopped killing, with possily one or two out of ten inhabitants left. The Tanguts officially surrendered in AD 1227, after being in existence for 190 years, from AD 1038 to AD 1227. (Five stars in a row were interpreted as some omen as to rise and fall of an emperor or dynasty. History of Yuan Dynasty mentioned that Genghis Khan, before his death, had ordered that Mongols should not kill people at random. This certainly is a glorification since the Tangut massacre contradicted what Genghis Khan had decreed. )

Meanwhile, Genghis Khan sent Ogedei eastward with majority of his troops. They crossed the great bend of the Yellow River and began to attack the Jurchen Jin forces. In July, Genghis Khan died at age 66 (73 ? per different record) somewhere near today's Liupanshan Mountain, Gansu Province, rumored to have been poisoned or killed by his Tangut wife. He was buried in Qinian Valley and was titled Taizu posthumously. Genghis Khan was also titled Emperor Shengwu, having a reign of 22 years and having conquered 40 countries. Tolui was made regent after Genghis Khan's death. Genghis Khan, at death-bed, outlined to his youngest son, Tului, the plan for attacking the Jurchens, i.e., circumventing southward near the Song-Jurchen border areas of Sichuan Province. Genghis Khan said the Song Chinese would for sure acquiesce because the Jurchens were the feuds of Song Chinese.

Ogedei's Campaigns
After the death of Genghis Khan, for the period of 1227/1229, Tolui acted as a regent. In AD 1228, a khuriltai was held on Kerulen River and Secret History was compiled. Kuriltai at Karakorum in 1228 selected Ogedei as khan. At the kuriltai, plans were made for campaigns against the Bulghars, Turks in the region of Kazan on the middle Volga River, and conquest of the Jurchens. By AD 1229, Batu Khan, son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan, defeated most of the Bulghar posts. In AD 1229, Ogodei got enthroned according to Genghis Khan's wish. Yelu Chucai would pursuade Ogedei into erecting rituals for officialdom and hiring civil officials for governance. Ogedei further devized tax laws and pursuded the Mongols into less killing for sake of more tax revenue collection from people conquered.

Ogedei declined Jurchen Jin's tributes for condoling Genghis Khan's death and declined again Jurchen Jin's tributes for congratulating Ogedei on his enthronement. In the spring of AD 1230, Ogedei (i.e., Yuan Emperor Taizong posthumously) ordered a campaign against Jurchen Jin. The Mongols crossed the Yellow River into Shanxi Province and took over more than 60 towns and castles, and attacked the city of Fengxiang (which Muhuali failed to take earlier). Jurchen Jin General Wanyan Hada, fearing the Mongol army, did not go to the relief of Fengxiang which fell after a siege of 2-3 months. Wanyan Dada hid himself in Tongguan Pass. Tolui then went on to attack Tongguan Pass but failed to conquer it. In AD 1231, Ogedei sent an expedition to defeat remaining Khitans who invaded Korea.

A Jurchen defector general called Li Guochang proposed that Mongols march southeastward by circumventing the city of Baoji, Gansu Province, and flowed down the Han-shui River. The Mongols, passing Hanzhong, the border areas with both Song and Jurchen Jin in eastern Sichuan Province, would defeat the Jurchens in the Hanzhong areas and in Tangdeng areas (today's Yuxian County, Henan Province).

When Mongol emissary arrived at Feizhou to borrow a path from Song governor Zhang Xuan, Zhang Xuan killed the emissary. Ogedei then ordered Tolui to march out of Baoji to take over Da'sanguan Pass. Tolui took over Fengzhou Prefecture and slaughtered Yang-zhou Prefecture. Tolui further sent a column into Sichuan Province by paving a road out of Guibieshan Mountain and crossing the Jialingjiang River. To avoid further confrontation with Song Chinese, the Mongols withdrew from Song territories and went to Han-shui River to attack the Jurchens. Wayan Hada was recalled from Tongguan to defend the Henan Province, and Wu Xian came to reinforcement, too. A Jurchen general by the name of Fengdula advised against attacking Mongols when they crossed Han-shui River halfway. Mongols under Tolui, though numbering 30,000, managed to trick the Jurchen armies into thinking that they had retreated.

The first Mongol column, under Ogedei, crossed the Yellow River at Baipo Town, Heqing County, and attacked the city of Zhengzhou. Subetei was ordered to attack Biancheng (i.e., today's Kaifeng) which was Jurchen's capital. Jurchens had about 40,000 men around the capital, with the city wall being 20 Chinese li in perimeter. Wanyan Hada and Fengdula were ordered to return north to guard the capital. Tolui chased them with 3000 cavalry while Subetei also sent armies to attack the Jurchen relief column. At Sanfengshan Mountain, the two Mongol columns encircled the Jurchens and defeated them by intentionally tricking them into fleeing via a trap. Jurchens fled to Junzhou Prefecture. Ogodei sent over a third column and took over the city. Wayan Hada was killed inside Junzhou, and another Jurchen general by the name of Shanhuashan came to the Mongols to die in front of Tolui instead of dying among the soldiers. Fengdula was captured on the road and was killed for refusing to surrender to the Mongols. The Jurchen main general at Tongguan, i.e., Wayan Chongxi, fled the city after hearing of Wayan Hada destruction, and his deputy general surrendered to the Mongols. Mongols went on to capture and kill Wanyan Chongxi and his familes. Mongols then attacked Luoyang. Jurchen general at Luoyang committed suicide; however, the soldiers and residents, without a general, managed to defeat the Mongol who laid a siege for three months. At the capital of Kaifeng, Jurchen Emperor Shouxu sent an emissary to Subetei for peace, but peace was refused by the Mongols. Mongols deployed hundreds of 'stone cannons'. However, Kaifeng was fortified enough to withstand the cannon balls. Kaifeng was rebuilt by Posteriro Zhou Emperor Shizong during Five Dynasties time period. Jurchens sent a thousand men suicide mission to attack the Mongol cannon unit. After 16 days of siege, Subetei, under order of Ogedei, agreed to peace by having Jurchen prince sent to Mongols as a hostage. Subetei then withdrew from Kaifeng siege and deployed armies in between Yellow River and Luo-he River. However, about 30 Mongol emissaries for peace were killed by Jurchen's Feihu [flying tiger] Garrison troops. Mongols renewed attacks at Kaifeng. Wu Xian assembled about 100,000 soldiers and came to the relief. At this time, Ogedei got ill. According to Secret History, Tolui preyed to die on behalf of Ogedei and in AD 1233, Tolui died.

Subetei now took charge. Before Subetei arrived in Kaifeng, Jurchen Emperor Shouxu fled the city. There were less than 30,000 units of grain left, and an epidemic had already taken away 100,000 lives. Being chased all the way, Jurchen emperor first retreated to Gui'de in the north, and then retreated southward to Caizhou Prefecture, inside of today's Henan Province.

At Kaifeng, a Jurchen marshal by the name of Cui Li killed two generals sent by Jurchen emperor for fetching the empress and imperial family. After raping the Jurchen empress and the royal family, Cui Li surrendered Jurchen royal family to Subetei. Subetei killed the Jurchen princes and took in the women. Yelu Chucai managed to stop Ogedei from slaughtering Kaifeng which still possessed about 400,000 people. Wanyan family did not get exemption, however. From beginning to end, Kaifeng had undergone continuous Mongol attacks for about one year.

At this time, Mongols took over Luoyang. Ogedei sent an emissary to Song Emperor Lizong, promising the land south of Yellow River in exchange for the Song Chinese cooperation in attacking Jurchens together. Then, Ogedei ordered Tacha'erbuzhan (who took over Luoyang earlier) to attack the city of Xiangyang for sake of encircling the Jurchens at Caizhou. Jurchens, not knowing the Mongol-Chinese alliance, sent an emissary to Song Dynasty for borrowing grains. Song flatly declined the request. Further, Song Dynasty sent a general with 20,000 army and 300,000 units of grains to the Mongol camp and joined the siege of Caizhou. The Mongols declined the Jurchen's request for surrender. In AD 1234, under the attacks of Mongols to the north and the Chinese to the south, last Jurchen emperor committed suicide after defending the city for two months, and Jurchen Jin Dynasty ended after 120 years in history (from AD 1115 to AD 1234). Mongols and Chinese divided the bones of last Jurchen emperor (i.e., Jin Aizong) into two halves. They reached an agreement to have the northwest of Cai Prefecture as the dividing line. But half a year later, Song Chinese went to take over Kaifeng etc, provoking Mongols into a war. An ex-Jurchen general killed Cui Li and surrendered to Song Dynasty at Kaifeng. When Song armies, with five days of grain supply, went on to take over Luoyang, the city had only three hundred households left. Under Mongol counter-attack, Song evacuated from Luoyang. When Mongols attacked and flooded Kaifeng with water from the Yellow River, Song armies fled south.

In the 7th year of Ogedei's reign, three Mongol armies invaded Song China's Sichuan Province, south bank of Han-shui River, and the area between Hui River and Yantze. At this time, Korean king killed Mongol emissary. Ogedei had to redirect his efforts at Korea first. Korean king surrendered his son to the Mongols as a hostage, and Korea was back as a vassalage in AD 1236. (Back in AD 1231, Ogedei sent an expedition to defeat remaining Khitans who invaded Korea.)

While Ogedei intended to continue war with Song China, Jala ad-Din had staged a comeback in Central Asia. Jala ad-Din had fled to Kashmir in AD 1222. After Mongols left, he crossed Indus River back to the west and recovered the territories of Iraq, Khorasan and Masandelan (Mazandaran). Further, he invaded several tribes in the north, including Qin-cha (i.e., Kipchak). A tribal chieftan fled south and requested help with both Egyptian King and Roman Emperor in fighting Jala ad-Din. Three parties then pacified Jala ad-Din in the hope of having him couter the next wave of Mongol attacks. Ogedei, before an official campaign against Russia and Europe, dispatched 30,000 men against Jala ad-Din. Jala ad-Din, who was indulgent in drinking, was defeated. On his way fleeing westward towards Rome, Jala ad-Din was killed by locals.

Second European Campaign

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